素材Module 3 文本 Literature 外研.docx

素材Module 3 文本 Literature 外研.docx

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素材Module3文本Literature外研

Literature

OldbookbindingsattheMertonCollegelibrary.

Literatureistheartofwrittenworks.Literallytranslated,thewordmeans"acquaintancewithletters"（fromLatinlitteraletter）.InWesternculturethemostbasicwrittenliterarytypesincludefictionandnon-fiction.

Definitions

Literature

Majorforms

Novel ·Poem ·Drama

Shortstory ·Novella

Genres

Epic ·Lyric ·Drama

Romance ·Satire

Tragedy ·Comedy

Tragicomedy

Media

Performance（play） ·Book

Techniques

Prose ·Poetry

Historyandlists

Basictopics ·Literaryterms

History ·Modernhistory

Books ·Writers

Literaryawards ·Poetryawards

Discussion

Criticism ·Theory ·Magazines

Theword"literature"hasdifferentmeaningsdependingonwhoisusingit.Itcouldbeappliedbroadlytomeananysymbolicrecord,encompassingeverythingfromimagesandsculpturestoletters.Inamorenarrowsensethetermcouldmeanonlytextcomposedofletters,orotherexamplesofsymbolicwrittenlanguage（Egyptianhieroglyphs,forexample）.Anevenmorenarrowinterpretationisthattexthaveaphysicalform,suchasonpaperorsomeotherportableform,totheexclusionofinscriptionsordigitalmedia.TheMuslimscholarandphilosopherImamJa'faral-Sadiq（702-765AD）definedLiteratureasfollows:

"Literatureisthegarmentwhichoneputsonwhathesaysorwritessothatitmayappearmoreattractive."[1]addedthatliteratureisasliceoflifethathasbeengivendirectionandmeaning,anartisticinterpretationoftheworldaccordingtothepercipient'spointofviews.Frequently,thetextsthatmakeupliteraturecrossedovertheseboundaries.RussianFormalistRomanJakobsondefinesliteratureas"organizedviolencecommittedonordinaryspeech",highlightingliterature'sdeviationfromtheday-to-dayandconversationalstructureofwords.Illustratedstories,hypertexts,cavepaintingsandinscribedmonumentshaveallatonetimeoranotherpushedtheboundariesof"literature."

Peoplemayperceiveadifferencebetween"literature"andsomepopularformsofwrittenwork.Theterms"literaryfiction"and"literarymerit"oftenservetodistinguishbetweenindividualworks.Forexample,almostallliteratepeopleperceivetheworksofCharlesDickensas"literature,"whereassomecritics[citationneeded]lookdownontheworksofJeffreyArcherasunworthyofinclusionunderthegeneralheadingof"Englishliterature."Criticsmayexcludeworksfromtheclassification"literature,"forexample,onthegroundsofapoorstandardofgrammarandsyntax,ofanunbelievableordisjointedstory-line,orofinconsistentorunconvincingcharacters.Genrefiction（forexample:

romance,crime,orsciencefiction）mayalsobecomeexcludedfromconsiderationas"literature."

History

OneoftheearliestknownliteraryworksistheSumerianEpicofGilgamesh,anepicpoemdatedaround2700B.C.,whichdealswiththemesofheroism,friendship,loss,andthequestforeternallife.Differenthistoricalperiodshaveemphasizedvariouscharacteristicsofliterature.Earlyworksoftenhadanovertorcovertreligiousordidacticpurpose.Moralizingorprescriptiveliteraturestemsfromsuchsources.TheexoticnatureofromanceflourishedfromtheMiddleAgesonwards,whereastheAgeofReasonmanufacturednationalisticepicsandphilosophicaltracts.Romanticismemphasizedthepopularfolkliteratureandemotiveinvolvement,butgavewayinthe19th-centuryWesttoaphaseofrealismandnaturalism,investigationsintowhatisreal.The20thcenturybroughtdemandsforsymbolismorpsychologicalinsightinthedelineationanddevelopmentofcharacter.

Poetry

Apoemisdefinedasacompositionwritteninverse（althoughversehasbeenequallyusedforepicanddramaticfiction）.Poemsrelyheavilyonimagery,precisewordchoice,andmetaphor;theymaytaketheformofmeasuresconsistingofpatternsofstresses（metricfeet）orofpatternsofdifferent-lengthsyllables（asinclassicalprosody）;andtheymayormaynotutilizerhyme.Onecannotreadilycharacterizepoetryprecisely.Typicallythough,poetryasaformofliteraturemakessomesignificantuseoftheformalpropertiesofthewordsituses –thepropertiesattachedtothewrittenorspokenformofthewords,ratherthantotheirmeaning.Metredependsonsyllablesandonrhythmsofspeech;rhymeandalliterationdependonwords

Poetryperhapspre-datesotherformsofliterature:

earlyknownexamplesincludetheSumerianEpicofGilgamesh（datedfromaround2700B.C.）,partsoftheBible,thesurvivingworksofHomer（theIliadandtheOdyssey）,andtheIndianepicsRamayanaandMahabharata.Inculturesbasedprimarilyonoraltraditionstheformalcharacteristicsofpoetryoftenhaveamnemonicfunction,andimportanttexts:

legal,genealogicalormoral,forexample,mayappearfirstinverseform.

Somepoetryusesspecificforms:

thehaiku,thelimerick,orthesonnet,forexample.AtraditionalhaikuwritteninJapanesemusthavesomethingtodowithnature,containseventeenonji（syllables）,distributedoverthreelinesingroupsoffive,seven,andfive,andshouldalsohaveakigo,aspecificwordindicatingaseason.Alimerickhasfivelines,witharhymeschemeofAABBA,andlinelengthsof3,3,2,2,3stressedsyllables.Ittraditionallyhasalessreverentattitudetowardsnature.Poetrynotadheringtoaformalpoeticstructureiscalled"freeverse"

Languageandtraditiondictatesomepoeticnorms:

Persianpoetryalwaysrhymes,Greekpoetryrarelyrhymes,ItalianorFrenchpoetryoftendoes,EnglishandGermancangoeitherway（althoughmodernnon-rhymingpoetryoften,perhapsunfairly,hasamore"serious"aura）.PerhapsthemostparadigmaticstyleofEnglishpoetry,blankverse,asexemplifiedinworksbyShakespeareandbyMilton,consistsofunrhymediambicpentameters.Somelanguagespreferlongerlines;someshorterones.Someoftheseconventionsresultfromtheeaseoffittingaspecificlanguage'svocabularyandgrammarintocertainstructures,ratherthanintoothers;forexample,somelanguagescontainmorerhymingwordsthanothers,ortypicallyhavelongerwords.Otherstructuralconventionscomeaboutastheresultofhistoricalaccidents,wheremanyspeakersofalanguageassociategoodpoetrywithaverseformpreferredbyaparticularskilledorpopularpoet.

Worksfortheatre（seebelow）traditionallytookverseform.Thishasnowbecomerareoutsideoperaandmusicals,althoughmanywouldarguethatthelanguageofdramaremainsintrinsicallypoetic.

Inrecentyears,digitalpoetryhasarisenthattakesadvantageoftheartistic,publishing,andsyntheticqualitiesofdigitalmedia.

Prose

Proseconsistsofwritingthatdoesnotadheretoanyparticularformalstructures（otherthansimplegrammar）;"non-poetic"writing,perhaps.Thetermsometimesappearspejoratively,butprosaicwritingsimplysayssomethingwithoutnecessarilytryingtosayitinabeautifulway,orusingbeautifulwords.Prosewritingcanofcoursetakebeautifulform;butlessbyvirtueoftheformalfeaturesofwords（rhymes,alliteration,metre）butratherbystyle,placement,orinclusionofgraphics.Butoneneednotmarkthedistinctionprecisely,andperhapscannotdoso.Oneareaofoverlapis"prosepoetry",whichattemptstoconveyusingonlyprose,theaestheticrichnesstypicalofpoetry.

Essays

Anessayconsistsofadiscussionofatopicfromanauthor'spersonalpointofview,exemplifiedbyworksbyFrancisBaconorbyCharlesLamb.

'Essay'inEnglishderivesfromtheFrench'essai',meaning'attempt'.Thusonecanfindopen-ended,provocativeand/orinconclusiveessays.Theterm"essays"firstappliedtotheself-reflectivemusingsofMicheldeMontaigne,andeventodayhehasareputationasthefatherofthisliteraryform.

Genresrelatedtotheessaymayinclude:

∙thememoir,tellingthestoryofanauthor'slifefromtheauthor'spersonalpointofview

∙theepistle:

usuallyaformal,didactic,orelegantletter.

Fiction

Narrativefiction（narrativeprose）generallyfavoursproseforthewritingofnovels,shortstories,graphicnovels,andthelike.Singularexamplesoftheseexistthroughouthistory,buttheydidnotdevelopintosystematicanddiscreteliteraryformsuntilrelativelyrecentcenturies.Lengthoftenservestocategorizeworksofprosefiction.Althoughlimitsremainsomewhatarbitrary,modernpublishingconventionsdictatethefollowing:

∙AMiniSagaisashortstoryofexactly50words

∙AFlashfictionisgenerallydefinedasapieceofproseunderathousandwords.

∙Ashortstorycomprisesprosewritingofbetween1000and20,000words（buttypicallymorethan5000words）,whichmayormaynothaveanarrativearc.

∙Astorycontainingbetween20,000and50,000wordsfallsintothenovellacategory.

∙Aworkoffictioncontainingmorethan50,000wordsfallssquarelyintotherealmofthenovel.

Anovelconsistssimplyofalongstorywritteninprose,yettheformdevelopedcomparativelyrecently.Icelandicprosesagasdatingfromaboutthe11thcenturybridgethegapbetweentraditionalnationalverseepicsandthemodernpsychologicalnovel.InmainlandEurope,theSpaniardCervanteswroteperhapsthefirstinfluentialnovel:

DonQuixote,thefirstpartofwhichwaspublishedin1605andthesecondin1615.Earliercollectionsoftales,suchastheOneThousandandOneNights,Boccaccio'sDecameronandChaucer'sTheCanterburyTales,havecomparableformsandwouldclassifyasnovelsifwrittentoday.OtherworkswritteninclassicalAsianandArabicliteratureresembleevenmorestronglythenovelaswenowthinkofit –forexample,workssuchastheJapaneseTaleofGenjibyLadyMurasaki,theArabicHayyibnYaqdhanbyIbnTufail,theArabicTheologusAutodida