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CHAPTER

LEARNINGANDMEMORY

3

CHAPTERSUMMARY

Learningreferstoarelativelypermanentchangeinbehaviorthatiscausedbyexperience.Learningcanoccurthroughsimpleassociationsbetweenastimulusandaresponseorviaacomplexseriesofcognitiveactivities.Learningisanongoingprocess.

Itisusefulinanystudyofconsumerbehaviortoexplorebehaviorallearningtheoriesinordertogaininsightintohowconsumerslearn.Behaviorallearningtheoriesassumethatlearningoccursasaresultofresponsestoexternalevents.Classicalconditioningoccurswhenastimulusthatnaturallyelicitsaresponse（anunconditionedstimulus）ispairedwithanotherstimulusthatdoesnotinitiallyelicitthisresponse.Overtime,thesecondstimulus（theconditionedstimulus）comestoelicittheresponseaswell.Severalexperimentsthatdemonstratethisconditioningarediscussedinthischapter.Throughthisdiscussionitisfoundthataconditionedresponsecanalsoextendtoother,similarstimuliinaprocessknownasstimulusgeneralization.Thisprocessisthebasisforsuchmarketingstrategiesaslicensingandfamilybranding,whereaconsumer’spositiveassociationswithaproductaretransferredtoothercontexts.Theoppositeeffectisachievedbymaskedbranding（wherethemanufacturerwishestodisguisetheproduct’strueorigin）.

Anotherviewofbehaviorallearningisthatofinstrumentaloroperantconditioning.Thisformofconditioningoccursasthepersonlearnstoperformbehaviorsthatproducepositiveoutcomesandavoidthosethatresultinnegativeoutcomes.Whileclassicalconditioninginvolvesthepairingoftwostimuli,instrumentallearningconditioningoccurswhenreinforcementisdeliveredfollowingaresponsetoastimulus.Itisimportanttounderstandhowconditioningoccurs.Reinforcementispartoftheprocess.Reinforcementispositiveifrewardisdeliveredfollowingaresponse.Itisnegativeifanegativeoutcomeisavoidedbynotperformingaresponse.Punishmentoccurswhenaresponseisfollowedbyunpleasantevents.Extinctionofthebehaviorwilloccurifreinforcementisnolongerneeded.

Athirdtheoryiscalledcognitivelearning.Thisformoccursastheresultofmentalprocesses.Forexample,observationallearningtakesplacewhentheconsumerperformsabehaviorasaresultofseeingsomeoneelseperformingitandbeingrewardedforit.

Theroleofmemoryinthelearningprocessisamajoremphasisinthischapter.Memoryreferstothestorageoflearnedinformation.Thewayinformationisencodedwhenitisperceiveddetermineshowitwillbestoredinmemory.Consumershavedifferentformsorlevelsofmemory.Thememorysystemsareknownassensorymemory,short-termmemory,andlong-termmemory.Eachplaysaroleinretainingandprocessinginformationfromtheoutsideworld.

Informationisnotstoredinisolation;itisincorporatedintoknowledgestructures,whereitisassociatedwithotherdata.Thelocationofproductinformationinassociativenetworks,andthelevelofabstractionatwhichitiscoded,helpstodeterminewhenandhowthisinformationwillbeactivatedatalatertime.Somefactorsthatinfluencethelikelihoodofretrievalincludetheleveloffamiliaritywithanitem,itssalience（orprominence）inmemory,andwhethertheinformationwaspresentedinpictorialorwrittenform.Thechapterconcludeswithabriefdiscussionofhowmemorycanbemeasuredwithrespecttomarketingstimuli.

CHAPTEROUTLINE

1.TheLearningProcess

a.Learningisarelativelypermanentchangeinbehaviorthatiscausedbyexperience.

1）Insteadofdirectexperience,thelearnercanlearnvicariouslybyobservingeventsthataffectothers.

2）Wecanlearnwithoutevenreallytrying—justobservingbrandnamesonshelves.Thiscasual,unintentionalacquisitionofknowledgeiscalledincidentallearning.

a.Learningisanongoingprocess.Ourworldofknowledgeisconstantlybeingrevisedasweareexposedtonewstimuliandreceiveongoingfeedback.

i.Theconceptoflearningcoversalotofground,rangingfromaconsumer’ssimpleassociationbetweenastimulussuchasaproductlogoandaresponsetoacomplexseriesofcognitiveactivities.

DiscussionOpportunity—Presenttheclasswithillustrationsoflearningvicariouslyandincidentallearninginaconsumercontext.Inreferencetoeachofyourillustrations,askstudentswhatstrategiesmarketershaveusedormightusetofostersuchlearning.

2.BehavioralLearningTheories

a.Behaviorallearningtheoriesassumethatlearningtakesplaceastheresultofresponsestoexternalevents.

i.Withrespecttothesetheories,themindmightbeperceivedasbeinga“blackbox”andobservableaspectsofbehaviorareemphasized.

ii.Theobservableaspectsconsistofthingsthatgointothebox（thestimuli—oreventsperceivedfromtheoutsideworld）andthingsthatcomeoutofthebox（theresponses—orreactionstothesestimuli）.

b.Thepreviousviewisrepresentedbytwoviews:

i.Classicalconditioning

ii.Instrumentalconditioning

c.Thesumoftheactivitiesisthatpeople’sexperiencesareshapedbythefeedbacktheyreceiveastheygothroughlife.Peoplealsolearnthatactionstheytakeresultinrewardsandpunishments,andthisfeedbackinfluencesthewaytheywillrespondinsimilarsituationsinthefuture.

*****UseFigure3-1Here*****

ClassicalConditioning

d.Classicalconditioningoccurswhenastimulusthatelicitsaresponseispairedwithanotherstimulusthatinitiallydoesnotelicitaresponseonitsown.

i.Overtime,thissecondstimuluscausesasimilarresponsebecauseitisassociatedwiththefirststimulus.

ii.ThisphenomenonwasfirstdemonstratedbyIvanPavlov’s“dogexperiments”whendoingresearchondigestioninanimals.

1.Pavlovinducedclassicalconditioninglearningbypairinganeutralstimulus（abell）withastimulusknowntocauseasalivationresponseindogs（hesquirteddriedmeatpowderintotheirmouths）.

2.Thepowderwasanunconditionedstimulus（UCS）becauseitwasnaturallycapableofcausingtheresponse.

3.Overtime,thebellbecameaconditionedresponse（CS）;itdidnotinitiallycausesalivation,butthedogslearnedtoassociatethebellwiththemeatpowderandbegantosalivateatthesoundofthebellonly.

4.Thedroolingofthesecanineconsumersoverasound,nowlinkedtofeedingtime,wasaconditionedresponse（CR）.

iii.ThisbasicformofclassicalconditioningdemonstratedbyPavlovprimarilyappliestoresponsescontrolledbytheautonomicandnervoussystems.

iv.Classicalconditioningcanhavesimilareffectsformorecomplexreactions（suchasinautomaticallyusingacreditcardforpurchases）.

DiscussionOpportunity—Askstudentstothinkofsomeexamplesofclassicalconditioningineverydaylifeaswellasinadvertisingandmarketing.Askstudentsiftheythinksuchexamplesrepresentintentionaleffortstoconditionconsumers.Whatarethestrengthsofthesecampaigns,ifany?

Besuretopointoutthedifferencebetweentrueconditioningandmereassociation.

e.Conditioningeffectsaremorelikelytooccuraftertheconditionedstimuli（CS）andunconditionedstimuli（UCS）havebeenpairedanumberoftimes（repetition）.Noticehowoftenadcampaignsarerepeated.Repetitionpreventsdecay.

f.StimulusgeneralizationreferstothetendencyofstimulisimilartoaCStoevokesimilar,conditionedresponses.Pavlov’sdogsmightrespondtosoundssimilartoabell（suchaskeysjangling）.

i.Privatebrandsoftenuse“piggybacking”tobuildonimpressionsbuiltbymajorbrands.

ii.Maskedbrandingoccurswhenamanufacturerdeliberatelyhidesaproduct’strueorigin.

g.StimulusdiscriminationoccurswhenastimulussimilartoaCSisnotfollowedbyanUCS.Whenthishappens,reactionsareweakenedandwillsoondisappear.

i.Manufacturersofwell-establishedbrandsurgeconsumersnottobuy“cheapimitations.”

DiscussionOpportunity—Askstudentsthefollowing:

Canyouthinkofsomeproductsthathavesimilarpackaging?

Similarshapes?

Similarnames?

Towhatextentdotheseexamplesrepresentstimulusgeneralization?

Ineachcase,whichbrandistheprimarybrandandwhichbrandisthe“metoo”brand?

Assumingthestrategywasintentional,diditwork?

Howcanamarketerachievestimulusdiscrimination?

MarketingApplicationsofBehavioralLearningPrinciples

h.Manymarketingstrategiesfocusontheestablishmentofassociationsbetweenstimuliandresponses.Exampleswouldbe:

i.Distinctivebrandimage.

ii.Linkagebetweenaproductandanunderlyingneed.

iii.Brandequityiswhereabrandhasastrongpositiveassociationinaconsumer’smemoryandcommandsalotofloyaltyasaresult.

iv.Repetitioncanbevaluable.Toomuchrepetition,however,resultsinadvertisingwearout.

i.Advertisementsoftenpairaproductwithapositivestimulustocreateadesirableassociation.

i.Theorderinwhichtheconditionedstimulusandtheunconditionedstimulusarepresentedcanaffectthelikelihoodthatlearningwilloccur.Normally,theunconditionedstimulus（backwardconditioning）shouldbepresentedpriortotheconditionedstimulus.

ii.Productassociationscanbeextinguished.

j.Theprocessofstimulusgeneralizationisoftencentraltobrandingandpackagingdecisionsthatattempttocapitalizeonconsumers’positiveassociationswithanexistingbrandorcompanyname.Strategiesinclude:

i.Familybranding

ii.Productlineextensions

iii.Licensing

iv.Look-alikepackaging

*****UseConsumerBehaviorChallenge#4Here*****

DiscussionOpportunity—Askstudentstogiveexamplesofbrandsthattheyperceivehaveequityoverotherbrands.Aswithequityofotherassets（suchasrealestate）,cananexactmonet