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CHAPTER
LEARNINGANDMEMORY
3
CHAPTERSUMMARY
Learningreferstoarelativelypermanentchangeinbehaviorthatiscausedbyexperience.Learningcanoccurthroughsimpleassociationsbetweenastimulusandaresponseorviaacomplexseriesofcognitiveactivities.Learningisanongoingprocess.
Itisusefulinanystudyofconsumerbehaviortoexplorebehaviorallearningtheoriesinordertogaininsightintohowconsumerslearn.Behaviorallearningtheoriesassumethatlearningoccursasaresultofresponsestoexternalevents.Classicalconditioningoccurswhenastimulusthatnaturallyelicitsaresponse(anunconditionedstimulus)ispairedwithanotherstimulusthatdoesnotinitiallyelicitthisresponse.Overtime,thesecondstimulus(theconditionedstimulus)comestoelicittheresponseaswell.Severalexperimentsthatdemonstratethisconditioningarediscussedinthischapter.Throughthisdiscussionitisfoundthataconditionedresponsecanalsoextendtoother,similarstimuliinaprocessknownasstimulusgeneralization.Thisprocessisthebasisforsuchmarketingstrategiesaslicensingandfamilybranding,whereaconsumer’spositiveassociationswithaproductaretransferredtoothercontexts.Theoppositeeffectisachievedbymaskedbranding(wherethemanufacturerwishestodisguisetheproduct’strueorigin).
Anotherviewofbehaviorallearningisthatofinstrumentaloroperantconditioning.Thisformofconditioningoccursasthepersonlearnstoperformbehaviorsthatproducepositiveoutcomesandavoidthosethatresultinnegativeoutcomes.Whileclassicalconditioninginvolvesthepairingoftwostimuli,instrumentallearningconditioningoccurswhenreinforcementisdeliveredfollowingaresponsetoastimulus.Itisimportanttounderstandhowconditioningoccurs.Reinforcementispartoftheprocess.Reinforcementispositiveifrewardisdeliveredfollowingaresponse.Itisnegativeifanegativeoutcomeisavoidedbynotperformingaresponse.Punishmentoccurswhenaresponseisfollowedbyunpleasantevents.Extinctionofthebehaviorwilloccurifreinforcementisnolongerneeded.
Athirdtheoryiscalledcognitivelearning.Thisformoccursastheresultofmentalprocesses.Forexample,observationallearningtakesplacewhentheconsumerperformsabehaviorasaresultofseeingsomeoneelseperformingitandbeingrewardedforit.
Theroleofmemoryinthelearningprocessisamajoremphasisinthischapter.Memoryreferstothestorageoflearnedinformation.Thewayinformationisencodedwhenitisperceiveddetermineshowitwillbestoredinmemory.Consumershavedifferentformsorlevelsofmemory.Thememorysystemsareknownassensorymemory,short-termmemory,andlong-termmemory.Eachplaysaroleinretainingandprocessinginformationfromtheoutsideworld.
Informationisnotstoredinisolation;itisincorporatedintoknowledgestructures,whereitisassociatedwithotherdata.Thelocationofproductinformationinassociativenetworks,andthelevelofabstractionatwhichitiscoded,helpstodeterminewhenandhowthisinformationwillbeactivatedatalatertime.Somefactorsthatinfluencethelikelihoodofretrievalincludetheleveloffamiliaritywithanitem,itssalience(orprominence)inmemory,andwhethertheinformationwaspresentedinpictorialorwrittenform.Thechapterconcludeswithabriefdiscussionofhowmemorycanbemeasuredwithrespecttomarketingstimuli.
CHAPTEROUTLINE
1.TheLearningProcess
a.Learningisarelativelypermanentchangeinbehaviorthatiscausedbyexperience.
1)Insteadofdirectexperience,thelearnercanlearnvicariouslybyobservingeventsthataffectothers.
2)Wecanlearnwithoutevenreallytrying—justobservingbrandnamesonshelves.Thiscasual,unintentionalacquisitionofknowledgeiscalledincidentallearning.
a.Learningisanongoingprocess.Ourworldofknowledgeisconstantlybeingrevisedasweareexposedtonewstimuliandreceiveongoingfeedback.
i.Theconceptoflearningcoversalotofground,rangingfromaconsumer’ssimpleassociationbetweenastimulussuchasaproductlogoandaresponsetoacomplexseriesofcognitiveactivities.
DiscussionOpportunity—Presenttheclasswithillustrationsoflearningvicariouslyandincidentallearninginaconsumercontext.Inreferencetoeachofyourillustrations,askstudentswhatstrategiesmarketershaveusedormightusetofostersuchlearning.
2.BehavioralLearningTheories
a.Behaviorallearningtheoriesassumethatlearningtakesplaceastheresultofresponsestoexternalevents.
i.Withrespecttothesetheories,themindmightbeperceivedasbeinga“blackbox”andobservableaspectsofbehaviorareemphasized.
ii.Theobservableaspectsconsistofthingsthatgointothebox(thestimuli—oreventsperceivedfromtheoutsideworld)andthingsthatcomeoutofthebox(theresponses—orreactionstothesestimuli).
b.Thepreviousviewisrepresentedbytwoviews:
i.Classicalconditioning
ii.Instrumentalconditioning
c.Thesumoftheactivitiesisthatpeople’sexperiencesareshapedbythefeedbacktheyreceiveastheygothroughlife.Peoplealsolearnthatactionstheytakeresultinrewardsandpunishments,andthisfeedbackinfluencesthewaytheywillrespondinsimilarsituationsinthefuture.
*****UseFigure3-1Here*****
ClassicalConditioning
d.Classicalconditioningoccurswhenastimulusthatelicitsaresponseispairedwithanotherstimulusthatinitiallydoesnotelicitaresponseonitsown.
i.Overtime,thissecondstimuluscausesasimilarresponsebecauseitisassociatedwiththefirststimulus.
ii.ThisphenomenonwasfirstdemonstratedbyIvanPavlov’s“dogexperiments”whendoingresearchondigestioninanimals.
1.Pavlovinducedclassicalconditioninglearningbypairinganeutralstimulus(abell)withastimulusknowntocauseasalivationresponseindogs(hesquirteddriedmeatpowderintotheirmouths).
2.Thepowderwasanunconditionedstimulus(UCS)becauseitwasnaturallycapableofcausingtheresponse.
3.Overtime,thebellbecameaconditionedresponse(CS);itdidnotinitiallycausesalivation,butthedogslearnedtoassociatethebellwiththemeatpowderandbegantosalivateatthesoundofthebellonly.
4.Thedroolingofthesecanineconsumersoverasound,nowlinkedtofeedingtime,wasaconditionedresponse(CR).
iii.ThisbasicformofclassicalconditioningdemonstratedbyPavlovprimarilyappliestoresponsescontrolledbytheautonomicandnervoussystems.
iv.Classicalconditioningcanhavesimilareffectsformorecomplexreactions(suchasinautomaticallyusingacreditcardforpurchases).
DiscussionOpportunity—Askstudentstothinkofsomeexamplesofclassicalconditioningineverydaylifeaswellasinadvertisingandmarketing.Askstudentsiftheythinksuchexamplesrepresentintentionaleffortstoconditionconsumers.Whatarethestrengthsofthesecampaigns,ifany?
Besuretopointoutthedifferencebetweentrueconditioningandmereassociation.
e.Conditioningeffectsaremorelikelytooccuraftertheconditionedstimuli(CS)andunconditionedstimuli(UCS)havebeenpairedanumberoftimes(repetition).Noticehowoftenadcampaignsarerepeated.Repetitionpreventsdecay.
f.StimulusgeneralizationreferstothetendencyofstimulisimilartoaCStoevokesimilar,conditionedresponses.Pavlov’sdogsmightrespondtosoundssimilartoabell(suchaskeysjangling).
i.Privatebrandsoftenuse“piggybacking”tobuildonimpressionsbuiltbymajorbrands.
ii.Maskedbrandingoccurswhenamanufacturerdeliberatelyhidesaproduct’strueorigin.
g.StimulusdiscriminationoccurswhenastimulussimilartoaCSisnotfollowedbyanUCS.Whenthishappens,reactionsareweakenedandwillsoondisappear.
i.Manufacturersofwell-establishedbrandsurgeconsumersnottobuy“cheapimitations.”
DiscussionOpportunity—Askstudentsthefollowing:
Canyouthinkofsomeproductsthathavesimilarpackaging?
Similarshapes?
Similarnames?
Towhatextentdotheseexamplesrepresentstimulusgeneralization?
Ineachcase,whichbrandistheprimarybrandandwhichbrandisthe“metoo”brand?
Assumingthestrategywasintentional,diditwork?
Howcanamarketerachievestimulusdiscrimination?
MarketingApplicationsofBehavioralLearningPrinciples
h.Manymarketingstrategiesfocusontheestablishmentofassociationsbetweenstimuliandresponses.Exampleswouldbe:
i.Distinctivebrandimage.
ii.Linkagebetweenaproductandanunderlyingneed.
iii.Brandequityiswhereabrandhasastrongpositiveassociationinaconsumer’smemoryandcommandsalotofloyaltyasaresult.
iv.Repetitioncanbevaluable.Toomuchrepetition,however,resultsinadvertisingwearout.
i.Advertisementsoftenpairaproductwithapositivestimulustocreateadesirableassociation.
i.Theorderinwhichtheconditionedstimulusandtheunconditionedstimulusarepresentedcanaffectthelikelihoodthatlearningwilloccur.Normally,theunconditionedstimulus(backwardconditioning)shouldbepresentedpriortotheconditionedstimulus.
ii.Productassociationscanbeextinguished.
j.Theprocessofstimulusgeneralizationisoftencentraltobrandingandpackagingdecisionsthatattempttocapitalizeonconsumers’positiveassociationswithanexistingbrandorcompanyname.Strategiesinclude:
i.Familybranding
ii.Productlineextensions
iii.Licensing
iv.Look-alikepackaging
*****UseConsumerBehaviorChallenge#4Here*****
DiscussionOpportunity—Askstudentstogiveexamplesofbrandsthattheyperceivehaveequityoverotherbrands.Aswithequityofotherassets(suchasrealestate),cananexactmonet