solomon03im.docx

1、solomon03imC H A P T E R LEARNING AND MEMORY3CHAPTER SUMMARYLearning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience. Learning can occur through simple associations between a stimulus and a response or via a complex series of cognitive activities. Learning is an ongo

2、ing process. It is useful in any study of consumer behavior to explore behavioral learning theories in order to gain insight into how consumers learn. Behavioral learning theories assume that learning occurs as a result of responses to external events. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus t

3、hat naturally elicits a response (an unconditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus that does not initially elicit this response. Over time, the second stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) comes to elicit the response as well. Several experiments that demonstrate this conditioning are discus

4、sed in this chapter. Through this discussion it is found that a conditioned response can also extend to other, similar stimuli in a process known as stimulus generalization. This process is the basis for such marketing strategies as licensing and family branding, where a consumers positive associati

5、ons with a product are transferred to other contexts. The opposite effect is achieved by masked branding (where the manufacturer wishes to disguise the products true origin). Another view of behavioral learning is that of instrumental or operant conditioning. This form of conditioning occurs as the

6、person learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that result in negative outcomes. While classical conditioning involves the pairing of two stimuli, instrumental learning conditioning occurs when reinforcement is delivered following a response to a stimulus. It is im

7、portant to understand how conditioning occurs. Reinforcement is part of the process. Reinforcement is positive if reward is delivered following a response. It is negative if a negative outcome is avoided by not performing a response. Punishment occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events

8、. Extinction of the behavior will occur if reinforcement is no longer needed. A third theory is called cognitive learning. This form occurs as the result of mental processes. For example, observational learning takes place when the consumer performs a behavior as a result of seeing someone else perf

9、orming it and being rewarded for it. The role of memory in the learning process is a major emphasis in this chapter. Memory refers to the storage of learned information. The way information is encoded when it is perceived determines how it will be stored in memory. Consumers have different forms or

10、levels of memory. The memory systems are known as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Each plays a role in retaining and processing information from the outside world. Information is not stored in isolation; it is incorporated into knowledge structures, where it is associated wi

11、th other data. The location of product information in associative networks, and the level of abstraction at which it is coded, helps to determine when and how this information will be activated at a later time. Some factors that influence the likelihood of retrieval include the level of familiarity

12、with an item, its salience (or prominence) in memory, and whether the information was presented in pictorial or written form. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of how memory can be measured with respect to marketing stimuli. CHAPTER OUTLINE1. The Learning Processa. Learning is a relative

13、ly permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience. 1) Instead of direct experience, the learner can learn vicariously by observing events that affect others. 2) We can learn without even really tryingjust observing brand names on shelves. This casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledg

14、e is called incidental learning. a. Learning is an ongoing process. Our world of knowledge is constantly being revised as we are exposed to new stimuli and receive ongoing feedback. i. The concept of learning covers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumers simple association between a stimulus such

15、 as a product logo and a response to a complex series of cognitive activities. Discussion OpportunityPresent the class with illustrations of learning vicariously and incidental learning in a consumer context. In reference to each of your illustrations, ask students what strategies marketers have use

16、d or might use to foster such learning. 2. Behavioral Learning Theoriesa. Behavioral learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events. i. With respect to these theories, the mind might be perceived as being a “black box” and observable aspects of behav

17、ior are emphasized. ii. The observable aspects consist of things that go in to the box (the stimulior events perceived from the outside world) and things that come out of the box (the responsesor reactions to these stimuli).b. The previous view is represented by two views: i. Classical conditioning

18、ii. Instrumental conditioningc. The sum of the activities is that peoples experiences are shaped by the feedback they receive as they go through life. People also learn that actions they take result in rewards and punishments, and this feedback influences the way they will respond in similar situati

19、ons in the future. *Use Figure 3-1 Here * Classical Conditioningd. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.i. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is ass

20、ociated with the first stimulus. ii. This phenomenon was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlovs “dog experiments” when doing research on digestion in animals. 1. Pavlov induced classical conditioning learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in

21、dogs (he squirted dried meat powder into their mouths). 2. The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the response. 3. Over time, the bell became a conditioned response (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the

22、bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only. 4. The drooling of these canine consumers over a sound, now linked to feeding time, was a conditioned response (CR). iii. This basic form of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov primarily applies to responses con

23、trolled by the autonomic and nervous systems. iv. Classical conditioning can have similar effects for more complex reactions (such as in automatically using a credit card for purchases). Discussion OpportunityAsk students to think of some examples of classical conditioning in everyday life as well a

24、s in advertising and marketing. Ask students if they think such examples represent intentional efforts to condition consumers. What are the strengths of these campaigns, if any? Be sure to point out the difference between true conditioning and mere association. e. Conditioning effects are more likel

25、y to occur after the conditioned stimuli (CS) and unconditioned stimuli (UCS) have been paired a number of times (repetition). Notice how often ad campaigns are repeated. Repetition prevents decay. f. Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke similar, conditi

26、oned responses. Pavlovs dogs might respond to sounds similar to a bell (such as keys jangling). i. Private brands often use “piggybacking” to build on impressions built by major brands. ii. Masked branding occurs when a manufacturer deliberately hides a products true origin. g. Stimulus discriminati

27、on occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by an UCS. When this happens, reactions are weakened and will soon disappear. i. Manufacturers of well-established brands urge consumers not to buy “cheap imitations.”Discussion OpportunityAsk students the following: Can you think of some pro

28、ducts that have similar packaging? Similar shapes? Similar names? To what extent do these examples represent stimulus generalization? In each case, which brand is the primary brand and which brand is the “me too” brand? Assuming the strategy was intentional, did it work? How can a marketer achieve s

29、timulus discrimination? Marketing Applications of Behavioral Learning Principlesh. Many marketing strategies focus on the establishment of associations between stimuli and responses. Examples would be:i. Distinctive brand image.ii. Linkage between a product and an underlying need. iii. Brand equity

30、is where a brand has a strong positive association in a consumers memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.iv. Repetition can be valuable. Too much repetition, however, results in advertising wearout.i. Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable associ

31、ation. i. The order in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented can affect the likelihood that learning will occur. Normally, the unconditioned stimulus (backward conditioning) should be presented prior to the conditioned stimulus. ii. Product associations can be e

32、xtinguished. j. The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers positive associations with an existing brand or company name. Strategies include: i. Family brandingii. Product line extensionsiii. Licensingiv. Look-alike packaging * Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #4 Here *Discussion OpportunityAsk students to give examples of brands that they perceive have equity over other brands. As with equity of other assets (such as real estate), can an exact monet