环境与经济全球化.docx

环境与经济全球化.docx

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环境与经济全球化

环境与经济全球化外文翻译

外文翻译

原文

TheEnvironmentandEconomicGlobalization

MaterialSource:

Globalization:

What’sNewAuthor:

Frankel

Regulation

Itwillhelpifweclarifyonemorefundamentalsetofissuesbeforeweturntothemainsubjectofthechapter,theroleofglobalizationperse.

Itislogicaltoexpectenvironmentalregulationtocostsomething,tohaveanegativeeffectonmeasuredproductivityandincomepercapita.“Thereisnofreelunch,”MiltonFriedmanfamouslysaid.Mosttangiblegoodthingsinlifecost

something,andformanykindsofregulation,ifeffective,peoplewillreadilyagreethatthecostisworthpaying.Cost-benefittestsandcost-minimizationstrategiesare

economists’toolsfortryingtomakesurethatpoliciesdeliverthebestenvironmentforagiveneconomiccost,orthelowesteconomiccostforagivenenvironmentalgoal.[Taxesonenergy,forexample,particularlyonhydrocarbonfuels,arequiteanefficientmodeofenvironmentalregulationiftherevenueis“recycled”efficiently,whileCAFéstandardsaresomewhatlessefficientdifferentiatedCAFéstandards,forexample,encouragedthebirthoftheSUVcraze,andcrude“commandandcontrol”methodsarelessefficientstille.g.,governmentmandatesregardingwhatspecifictechnologiesfirmsmustuse.]Someenvironmentalregulations,whenlegislatedorimplementedpoorly,canimposeverylargeandunnecessaryeconomiccostsonfirms,andworkers,andconsumers.

Occasionallytherearepolicymeasuresthathavebothenvironmentaland

economicbenefits.Usuallythese“win-win”ideasconstitutetheeliminationofsome

previouslyexistingdistortioninpublicpolicy.Manycountrieshavehistoricallysubsidizedtheuseofcoal.TheUnitedStatessubsidizesminingandcattlegrazingon

federalland,andsometimesloggingandoildrillingaswell,nottomentionwateruse.Othercountrieshavesubstantialsubsidiesforoceanfishing.Eliminationofsuch

subsidieswouldimprovetheenvironmentandsavemoneyatthesametime--notjustforthefederalbudget,butforaggregaterealincomeaswell.Admittedlytheeconomists’approach?

taxinggasolineormakingrancherspayforgrazingrights?

isoftenunpopularpolitically.

Anotherideathatwouldhaveeconomicandenvironmentalbenefitssimultaneouslywouldbetoremoveallbarriersagainstinternationaltradeinenvironmentalequipmentandservices,suchasthoseinvolvedinrenewableenergygeneration,smokestackscrubbing,orwastetreatmentfacilities.Therewouldagainbeadoublepay-off:

thegrowth-enhancingeffectofeliminationbarrierstoexportsinasectorwheretheUnitedStatesislikelytobeabletodevelopacomparativeadvantage,togetherwiththeenvironment-enhancingeffectoffacilitatingimportsoftheinputsthatgointoenvironmentalprotection.

Adifferentschoolofthoughtclaimsmanyopportunitiesforsavingmoneywhilesimultaneouslysavingtheenvironment.ThePorterHypothesisholdsthatatighteningofenvironmentalregulationstimulatestechnologicalinnovationandtherebyhaspositiveeffectsonboththeeconomyandtheenvironment--forexample,savingmoneybysavingenergy.Theanalyticalrationaleforthisviewisnotentirelyclear.Istheclaimthatanysortofchangeinregulation,regardlessinwhatdirection,stimulatesinnovation,oristheresomethingspecialaboutenvironmentalregulation?

Istheresomethingspecialabouttheenergysector?

Itsproponentsciteanumberofreal-worldexampleswhereanewenvironmentalinitiativeturnedouttobeprofitableforagivenfirmorindustry.Suchcasessurelyexist,butthereislittleornoevidencethatalinkbetweenregulationandproductivitygrowthholdsasamatterofgenerality.Thehypothesisisperhapsbetter

understoodasmakingapointregarding“firstmoveradvantage.”Thatis,iftheworldisinthefuturetobemovinginaparticulardirection,suchastowardmoreenvironmentallyfriendlyenergysources,thenacountrythatinnovatesnewproductsandnewtechnologiesofthissortbeforeothersdowillbeinapositiontosellthefruitstothelatecomers.

Effectsofopennesstotrade

Thecentraltopicofthischapteristheimplicationsoftradefortheenvironment.Someeffectscomeviaeconomicgrowth,andsomecomeevenforagivenlevelof

income.Inbothcases,theeffectscanbeeitherbeneficialordetrimental.Probablythestrongesteffectsarethefirstsort,viaincome.Muchlikeinvestment,technologicalprogress,andothersourcesofgrowth,opennesstendstoraiseincome[viaclassicalcomparativeadvantage--thatis,eachcountryspecializesindoingwhatitdoesbest?

aswellasviadynamiceffectssuchasinnovation].Higherincomeinturnhasaneffectonsomeenvironmentalmeasuresthatisinitiallyadversebut,accordingtotheEnvironmentalKuznetsCurve,eventuallyturnsfavorable.

Whatabouteffectsoftradeandinvestmentthatdonotoperateviaeconomicgrowth?

Theycanbeclassifiedinthreecategories:

systemwideeffectsthatareadverse,systemwideeffectsthatarebeneficial,andeffectsthatvaryacrosscountriesdependingonlocal“comparativeadvantage.”

Racetothebottom

The“racetothebottom”hypothesisisperhapsthestrongestbasisforfearingthatinternationaltradeandinvestmentspecificallyratherthanindustrializationgenerallywillputdownwardpressureoncountries’environmentalstandardsandthusdamagetheenvironment.Leadersofindustry,andoftheunionswhosemembersareemployedinindustry,arealwaysconcernedaboutcompetitionfromabroad.Whendomesticregulationraisestheircosts,theyfearthattheywilllosecompetitivenessagainstfirmsinothercountries.Theywarnofalossofsales,employment,andinvestmenttoforeigncompetitors.

Oftendomesticproducerssoundthecompetitivenessalarmasawayofapplyingpoliticalpressureontheirgovernmentstominimizetheburdenofregulation.Tosome,thephrase“racetothebottom”connotesthattheequilibriumwillbeaworldoflittleornoregulation.Othersemphasizethat,inpractice,itisnotnecessarilyamatterofglobalizationleadingtoenvironmentalstandardsthatliterallydeclineovertime,butratherretardingthegradualraisingofenvironmentalstandardsthatwouldotherwiseoccur.Eitherway,theconcernisthat,totheextentthatcountriesareopentointernationaltradeandinvestment,environmentalstandardswillbelowerthantheywouldotherwisebe.Buthowimportantisthisinpractice?

Economists’researchsuggeststhatenvironmentalregulationisnotoneofthemoreimportantdeterminantsoffirms’abilitytocompeteinternationally.Whendecidingwheretolocate,multinationalfirmsseemtopayfarmoreattentiontosuchissuesaslaborcostsandmarketaccessthantothestringencyoflocalenvironmentalregulation.

Onceagain,itisimportanttodistinguish1thefearthatglobalizationwillleadtoaracetothebottominregulatorystandards,from2fearsthattheenvironmentwillbedamagedbytheveryprocessofindustrializationandeconomicgrowthitself.Openingofnationaleconomiestointernationaltradeandinvestmentcouldplayaroleinbothcases,butthetwopossiblechannelsareverydifferent.Inthefirstcase,theracetothebottom,theclaimisthatevenforagivenpathofeconomicgrowth,opennessunderminesenvironmentalstandards.Thiswouldbeadamningconclusion,becauseitwouldimplythatbylimitingtradeandinvestmentinsomeway,wemightbeabletoattainabetterenvironmentforanygivenlevelofGDP.Inthesecondcase,theimplicationwouldbethatopennessonlyaffectstheenvironmentinthewaythatinvestment,oreducation,orproductivitygrowth,oranyothersourceofgrowthaffectstheenvironment.

Gainsfromtrade

Whilethepossibilitythatexposuretointernationalcompetitionmighthavean

adverseeffectonenvironmentalregulationisfamiliar,lesswidelyrecognizedandmoresurprisingisthepossibilityofeffectsinthebeneficial,whichwewillcallthegainsfromtradehypothesis.Tradeallowscountriestoattainmoreofwhattheywant,whichincludesenvironmentalgoodsinadditiontomarket-measuredoutput.Howcouldopennesshaveapositiveeffectonenvironmentalquality,evenforagivenlevelofGDPpercapita?

Onepossibilityconcernstechnologicalandmanagerialinnovation.Openness

encouragesongoinginnovation.13Itthenseemslikelythatopennessencourages

innovationbeneficialtoenvironmentalimprovementaswellaseconomicprogress.Asecondpossibilityisaninternationalratchetingupofenvironmentalstandards.Thelargestpoliticaljurisdictioncansetthepaceforothers.WithintheUnitedStates,itiscalledthe“Californiaeffect;”whenthelargeststatesetshighstandardsforautopollutioncontrolequipment,forexample,theendresultmaybesimilarstandardsinotherstatesaswell.TheUnitedStatescanplaythesameroleglobally.

MultinationalcorporationsMNCstendtobringcleanstate-of-the-artproductiontechniquesfromhigh-standardcountriesoforigin,tohostcountrieswheretheyarenotyetknown,forseveralreasons:

“First,manycompaniesfindthattheefficiencyofhavingasinglesetof

managementpractices,pollutioncontroltechnologies,andtrainingprogrammes

gearedtoacommonsetofstandardsoutweighsanycostadvantagethatmightbeobtainedbyscalingbackonenvironmentalinvestmentsatoverseasfacilities.Second,multinationalenterprisesoftenoperateonalargescale,andrecognisethattheirvisibilitymakesthemespeciallyattractivetargetsforlocalenforcementofficialsThird,theprospectofliabilityforfailingtomeetstandardsoftenmotivatesbetterenvironmentalperformance”--EstyandGentry1997,p.161

Theclaimisnotthatallmultinationalcorporationsa