Grammer Guide语法.docx

Grammer Guide语法.docx

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GrammerGuide语法

GrammarGuide

ByKamBiu-bong

A

Activevoice

ActiveandPassivevoice

Eventsmayberelatedintheactiveorthepassivevoice.Inthepassive,thepersonorthing receiving theactionbecomesthegrammatical subject.

Forexample（theentityreceivingtheactionisinboldface）:

∙activevoice:

EricRohmermade thisfilm.

∙passivevoice:

 Thisfilm wasmadebyEricRohmer.

Oneformsthepassivebyconjugatingtheverb"tobe"beforethepastparticipleoftheprincipalverb.thetenseoftheverb"tobe"willdeterminethetenseofaction.Whenanagentoftheaction（thatis,thepersonorentity performing theaction）mustbedescribed,onedoessobyusingthepreposition"by":

∙Thisindustry willsoonbedeveloped inthethirdworld.

∙Sorry,butthiscar hasbeenpurchased by anothercustomer.

Englishusesthepassivevoicefrequently,althoughitisbesttoavoiditwhenpossible.Anoptionistouseanimpersonalsubject,suchas"one"or"someone"

∙（passivevoice）:

Thisjobneedstobedone.

∙（activevoice）:

Someoneneedstodothisjob.

Agreement,adjectives

Adjectives

Forms

AdjectivesaregenerallyinvariableinEnglishanddonotagreewithnounsinnumberandgender;nordotheytakecaseendings:

∙a blue car

∙the great outdoors

∙agroupof young women

However,afewadjectiveshaveaconnotationwhichisslightlymasculineorfeminine.Thus,onesaysthatawomanis beautiful whileamanwouldbecalled handsome.

Adjectivesindicatingreligionornationality（oraregion,stateorprovince）generallybeginwithacapitalletter,whethertheyrefertopeopleorobjects:

∙Sheisan American student.

∙Theygotoa Catholic school.

∙Theyenjoy Breton music.

Usage:

Inanounclusteranadjectivewillbeplaced,withveryfewexceptions, infrontof thenounitmodifies.Whentwoadjectivesprecedeanoun,theycanbeconnectedbyacomma（,）orbytheconjunction"and."Inaseriesofthreeormoreadjectives,oneusuallyuses"and"beforethelastadjectiveinthelist.

Examples:

∙Ilike short novels.

∙Thatfellowwillbea competent worker.

∙Shewrites long and flowery letters.

∙Heworks long, hard hours.

∙Shehada mean, old and overbearing step-mother.

Anadjectivemayfollowthenounwhenitisinapredicate（aftertheverb）orinarelativeclause.（Inrelativeclausestherelativepronounmaybeimplicit.）

Examples:

∙Hewasaman（whowas）always happy tohelpothers.

∙Sheisawoman（whois） true toherself.

∙Theywereentirely satisfied.

Agreement,nouns

Nouns

Gender

InEnglishnounsrarelychangeform,eventoindicategender.Asageneralrule,onlynounsreferringtopeopleandsomeanimalsreflectgenderintheirform.Bythesametoken,unlikemanyotherlanguages,theadjectivesmodifyingnounswillremainunchanged.

Example:

∙Mypoorlittledogdied.

However,certainnouns--especiallythosereferringtopeople--mayhavedifferentformstoindicatemasculineorfeminineusage:

∙man--woman

∙gentleman--lady

∙actor--actress

∙uncle--aunt

∙father--mother

Thesamecanbesaidofcertainmaleandfemaleanimals:

∙abuck,adoe

∙aram,aewe

∙abull,acow

∙astallion,amare

Inothercases,theword"male"or"female"isadded,ifitisconsiderednecessarytobespecific:

∙afemalecat

∙amalegiraffe

Note:

Ifthegenderofthepersonoranimalisknown,onewillgenerallyusethepronoun"he"or"she"torefertoit,asappropriate.Whenthegenderisleftunstated,thepronoun"he"isgenerallyusedwhenspeakingofpeople,or"it"whenspeakingofanimals.Someobjectsarealsoconsideredtobegenderedincertainusages:

somepeoplemayrefertoaboatoracaras"she."

Certainnouns（especiallythenamesofprofessions）aretraditionallyassociatedwithmenorwomen,inwhichcaseonesignalsexceptionstothetraditionbyadding"woman"（or"lady"）or"man"totheterm:

∙Theyareinagroupofmaledancers.

∙Mywifepreferstoseeawomandoctor.

Plurals

Asageneralrule,thepluralisformedbyadding"-s"tothesingularformofnouns.

∙shoe-->shoes

∙book-->books

∙river-->rivers

Nounsendingin"s"or"s"willgenerallytaketheending"-es":

∙bus-->buses

∙kiss-->kisses

Wordsendingin"y"willgenerallytaketheending"-ies"inplaceofthe"y":

∙party-->parties

∙supply-->supplies

Certainwordshaveveryirregularformsintheplural:

∙oneman-->twomen

∙onewoman-->twowomen

∙oneperson-->twopeople

∙onefoot-->twofeet

∙onemouse-->twomice

∙onegoose-->twogeese

∙onetooth-->twoteeth

∙onewife-->twowives

∙onechild-->twochildren

∙oneknife-->twoknives

∙onethief-->twothieves

∙onedwarf-->twodwarves（ou:

 dwarfs）

∙onepotato-->twopotatoes

∙oneleaf-->twoleaves

∙onelife-->twolives

∙oneloaf-->twoloaves

∙onehalf-->twohalves

Asmallsetofwordsdonotchangeformintheplural:

∙onemoose-->twomoose

∙onesheep-->twosheep

∙oneaircraft-->twoaircraft

WordsofGreekorLatinoriginwhichhaveretainedtheiroriginalendingswillgenerallytakethepluralformassociatedwiththelanguagetheyaredrawnfrom:

∙onealumnus-->twoalumni

∙onesyllabus-->twosyllabi

∙onealumna-->twoalumnae

∙onealga-->manyalgae

∙onecriterion-->manycriteria

∙oneforum-->manyfora（or :

 forums）

∙onethesis-->twotheses

∙onehypothesis-->twohypotheses

∙onephenomenon-->twophenomena

∙onecactus-->twocacti（or :

 cactuses）

∙onediagnosis-->twodiagnoses

∙oneoasis-->twooases

∙oneanalysis-->twoanalyses

Afewnounsareinvariableorcollective,alwaysindicatingapluralmeaning:

∙Shegavemesome information.

∙Michellehasalotof clothes.

Capitalletters

Certainnounsaregenerallycapitalized,including:

daysoftheweekandmonths;namesofholidays,cities（orstates,etc.）andreligions;nounsofnationality:

∙Minneapolis

∙Jewish

∙Monday

∙April

AdjectiveOrder

Whentwoormoreadjectivesareusedtodescribesomethingtheyareputinacertainorder.Forexample,opinionscomebeforefacts.

∙Beautifullongblackhair

∙Ahandsomeyoungman

∙Anicenewshirt

Nice,beautifulandhandsomeareopinions.Young,new,longandblackarefacts.Opinionscomefirst.Sizecomesbeforeage.Agecomesbeforecolor.Thefollowingchartshowthebasicorderofadjectives,butyoushouldknowthatsometimesthisorderisnotfollowed.

[NOTEINTHEABOVECHART“shape”（round,square）shouldbeputbetween“age”and“color”,andthe“noun”columnshouldbeseparatedfromtheothercolumns,witha+inserted.]

Example:

Werentedanicelittlebrownlogcabinbyalake.

Note:

Weusuallylimitthenumberofadjectivesprecedinganountothree.

Adjectives,demonstrative

Demonstrativeadjectives

Demonstrativeadjectiveshavetwosingularforms（this, that）andtwopluralforms（these, those）.Theseadjectivesareusedtodesignateproximitytoanobject,ortodistinguishbetweenanobjectthatisclose（intimeorspace）andonethatismoreremote.Usually"this"and"these"signalproximity,while"that"and"those"suggestdistance:

∙These booksaretooexpensive.

∙This carisresponsive.

∙That manirritatesme!

∙This hotelismoreexpensivethan that one.

Demonstrativepronouns

Demonstrativepronounshavethesameformasthedemonstrativeadjectives,butareusedwithoutthenounstowhichtheyrefer.Inthesingular,whendesignatingaspecificobject,thepronoun"one"isoftenadded:

∙Thesetomatoesarefresherthan those.

∙Thesearebetterthan those.

∙Wouldyoulikealittleof this?

∙That strikesmeasreallyweird!

∙Thebookismoreinterestingthan thatone. 

Infrontofarelativepronoun, thedemonstrativepronounbecomes"theone"or"theones"（whenspeakingofthings）,or"he/shewho","theywho"（whenspeakingofpeople）:

∙Thisfilmis theone thatyouhatedsomuch.

∙Hewho eatswellworkswell.

∙Thispenis theone withwhichthePresidentsignedthenewlaw.

Adjectives,possessive

Possession

InEnglishpossessionmaybeexpressedinfivedifferentways:

Possessiveadjectives

Possessiveadjectivesagreewiththepersontowhomtheyrefer:

∙I-->my

∙you-->your

∙he,her,it-->his （masculine）,her （feminine）,its （impersonal）

∙we-->our

∙they-->their

So,

∙Ihavelost my keys.

∙Theyarecomingin their car.

∙Imet your grandparents.

∙Thiscarhaslost its power.

Note:

 InEnglishthepossessiveadjectiveisusedtorefertopartsofthebody:

∙Shebrushes her teethtwiceaday.

∙Hebroke his armplayingsoccer.

∙His stomachaches.

Possessivepronouns

Possessivepronouns,liketheadjectives,agreewiththepersontowhomtheyrefer.Singularandpluralsharethesameform:

∙I-->mine

∙your-->yours

∙he,she,it-->his （masculine）,hers （feminine）, its （impersonal）

∙we-->ours

∙they-->theirs

So,

∙Ihavemylikes,andshehas hers.

∙Ifyougivemeoneof yours,I'llgiveyouoneof mine.

∙Ilikeourhouse,butfrankly,Iamjealousof theirs!

∙That's mine!

Theverb"tobelongto"

Theverb"tobelongto"indicatesownershiporpossession:

∙Thatpoodle belongsto Louise.

∙Theworld belongsto you.

The"s"ofpossession

Onemayadd"--'s"toanynouninordertoindicatepossession:

∙Ijustread Gustavo’s book.

∙Thefront door's lockisbroken.

∙Manyofthe world's countriesarepoor.

Note:

Donotconfusethe"s"ofpossessionwiththecontractionoftheverb"is":

∙Fred'sgoingtofetchit.（=Fred is goingtofetchit.）

∙Thetrain'slateagain.（=Thetrain is lateagain.）

"Whose"forindicatingpossession

"Whose"willbeplacedbeforethepossession（theobjectpossessed）,andwillreferownershiptotheprecedingnoun:

∙Themanwhosedogbitmesai