托福阅读听力背景知识.docx
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托福阅读听力背景知识
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关于美国的历史
Thecontinent'sfirstinhabitantswalkedintoNorthAmericaacrosswhatisnowtheBeringStraitfromAsia.Forthenext20,000yearsthesepioneeringsettlerswereessentiallyleftalonetodevelopdistinctanddynamiccultures.InthemodernUS,theirdescendantsincludethePueblopeopleinwhatisnowNewMexico;ApacheinTexas;NavajoinArizona,ColoradoandUtah;HopiinArizona;CrowinMontana;CherokeeinNorthCarolina;andMohawkandIroquoisinNewYorkState.
TheNorwegianexplorerLeifErikssonwasthefirstEuropeantoreachNorthAmerica,some500yearsbeforeadisorientedColumbusaccidentallydiscovered'Indians'inHispaniola（nowtheDominicanRepublicandHaiti）in1492.Bythemid-1550s,muchoftheAmericashadbeenpokedandproddedbyaparadeofexplorersfromSpain,Portugal,EnglandandFrance.
Thefirstcoloniesattractedimmigrantslookingtogetrichquicklyandreturnhome,buttheyweresoonfollowedbymigrantswhoseprimarygoalwastocolonize.TheSpanishfoundedthefirstpermanentEuropeansettlementinStAugustine,Florida,in1565;theFrenchmovedinonMainein1602,andJamestown,Virginia,becamethefirstBritishsettlementin1607.ThefirstAfricansarrivedas'indentured（合同的，契约的）laborers'withtheBritsayearpriortoEnglishPuritanpilgrims'escapeofreligiouspersecution（迫害）.ThepilgrimsfoundedacolonyatPlymouthRock,Massachusetts,in1620andsignedthefamousMayflowerCompact-adeclarationofself-governmentthatwouldlaterbeechoedintheDeclarationofIndependenceandtheUSConstitution.Britishattemptstoassertauthorityinits13NorthAmericancoloniesledtotheFrenchandIndianWar（1757-63）.TheBritishwerevictoriousbutwereleftwithanastywardebt,whichtheytriedtorecoup（赔偿，付还）byimposingnewtaxes.Therallyingcry'notaxationwithoutrepresentation'unitedthecolonies,whoceremoniouslydumpedcaffeinatedcargooverboardduringtheBostonTeaParty.BesiegedBritishgeneralCornwallissurrenderedtoAmericancommanderGeorgeWashingtonfiveyearslateratYorktown,Virginia,in1781.Inthe19thcentury,America'smantrawas'ManifestDestiny.'Acombinationoflandpurchases,diplomacyandoutrightwarsofconquesthadby1850giventheUSroughlyitspresentshape.In1803,NapoleondumpedtheentireGreatPlainsforapittance（微薄收入）,andSpainchippedinwithFloridain1819.TheBattleoftheAlamoduringthe1835TexanRevolutionpavedthewayforTexanindependencefromMexico,andthewarwithMexico（1846-48）securedmostofthesouthwest,includingCalifornia.
Thesystematicannihilation（消灭，歼灭）ofthebuffalohuntedbythePlainsIndians,encroachment（侵犯）ontheirlands,andtreatiesnotworththepapertheywerewrittenonledtoNativeAmericansbeingherdedintoreservations,deprivedofboththeirlivelihoodsandtheirspiritualconnectiontotheirland.Nineteenth-centuryimmigrationdrasticallyalteredtheculturallandscapeassettlersofpredominantlyBritishstockwerejoinedbyCentralEuropeansandChinese,manyattractedbythe1849goldrushinCalifornia.TheSouthremainedfirmlycommittedtoanagrarianlifeheavilyreliantonAfricanAmericanslavelabor.TensionswereontherisewhenabolitionistAbrahamLincolnwaselectedpresidentin1860.TheSouthsecededfrom（脱离）theUnion,andtheCivilWar,byfarthebloodiestwarinAmerica'shistory,beganthefollowingyear.TheNorthprevailed（胜利）in1865,freedtheslavesandintroduceduniversaladultmalesuffrage（选举权）.Lincoln'svisionforreconstruction,however,diedwithhisassassination.America'strouncingoftheSpaniardsin1898markedtheUSA'sascendancyasasuperpowerandwokethecountryoutofitsisolationistslumber.
TheUSstilldiditsbestnottogetitsfeetdirtyinWWI'strenches,butfinallycapitulated（停止抵抗，有条件投降）in1917,sendingoveramilliontroopstohelpsortoutthepesky（讨厌的，棘手的）Germans.PostwarcelebrationswerecutshortbyProhibitionin1920,whichbannedalcoholinthecountry.The1929stock-marketcrashsignaledthestartoftheGreatDepressionandeventuallybroughtaboutFranklinRoosevelt'sNewDeal,whichsoughttoliftthecountrybacktoprosperity.AftertheJapanesedroppedinuninvitedonPearlHarborin1941,theUSplayedamajorroleindefeatingtheAxispowers.AtomicbombsdroppedonHiroshimaandNagasakiin1945notonlyendedthewarwithJapan,butusheredinthenuclearage.TheendofWWIIseguedintotheColdWar-aperiodofgreatdomesticprosperityandasurfaceuniformitybeliedbyparanoiaandbetrayal.PoliticianslikeSenatorJoeMcCarthytookadvantageoftheclimatetofananticommunistflames,whiletheUSSRandUSAstockpilednuclearweaponsandfoughtwarsbyproxyinKorea,AfricaandSoutheastAsia.Tensionsbetweenthetwocountriesreachedtheirpeakin1962duringtheCubanMissileCrisis.
The1960swasadecadeofprofoundsocialchange,thankslargelytotheCivilRightsmovement,VietnamWarprotestsandthediscoveryofsex,drugsandrock&roll.TheCivilRightsmovementgainedmomentumin1955withabusboycottinMontgomery,Alabama.Asanonviolentmassprotestmovement,itaimedatbreakingdownsegregationandregainingthevotefordisfranchisedSouthernblacks.Themovementpeakedin1963withMartinLutherKingJr's'Ihaveadreamspeech'inWashington,DC,andthepassageofthelandmark1964CivilRightsActand1965VotingRightsAct.Meanwhile,America'syouthwererejectingtheconformityofthepreviousdecade,growingtheirhairlongandsmokinglotsofdope.'Tunein,turnon,dropout'wasthemantraofagenerationwhoprotestedheavily（andnotdisinterestedly）againstthewarinVietnam.Assassinationsofprominentpoliticalleaders-JohnandRobertKennedy,MalcolmXandMartinLutherKingJr-tookalittleglossofftheparty,andtheAmericantroopsmiredinVietnamtookofftherest.NASA'smoonlandingin1969didlittletorestorenationalpride.In1974RichardNixonbecamethefirstUSpresidenttoresignfromoffice,duetohisinvolvementinthecover-upoftheWatergateburglaries,bringingAmericanpatriotismtoanewlow.
The1970sand'80swereaperiodoftechnologicaladvancementanddecliningindustrialism.SelfimagetookabatteringatthehandsofIranianAyatollahKhomeni.Aconservativebacklash,symbolizedbytheelectionandpopulartwo-termpresidencyofactorRonaldReagan,soughttoputsomebackboneinthecountry.TheUSthenconcentratedonbullyingitspoorneighborsinCentralAmericaandtheCaribbean,meddlingintheaffairsofElSalvador,Nicaragua,PanamaandGrenada.ThecollapseoftheSovietBloc's'EvilEmpire'in1991lefttheUSastheworld'ssolesuperpower,andtheGulfWarin1992gaveGeorgeBushtheopportunitytoleadacoalitionsupposedlyrepresentinga'newworldorder'intobattleagainstIraq.Domesticmatters,suchashealthreform,gunownership,drugs,racialtension,gayrights,balancingthebudget,thetenaciousWhitewaterscandalandtheMonicaLewinsky'Fornigate'affairtendedtoovershadowinternationalconcernsduringtheClintonadministration.Inabidtokickstartitsthen-ailingeconomy,theUSAsignedNAFTA,afree-tradeagreementwithCanadaandMexico,in1993,invadedHaitiinitsroleofupholderofdemocracyin1994,committedthousandsoftroopstopeacekeepingoperationsinBosniain1995,hostedtheOlympicsin1996andenjoyed,overthepastfewyears,thefruitsofabullmarketonWallSt.The2000presidentialelectionmadehistorybybeingthemosthighlycontestedraceinthenation'shistory.
TheDemocraticcandidate,AlGore,securedthemajorityofthepopularvotebutlosttheelectionwhenallofFlorida'selectoralcollegevoteswenttoGeorgeWBush,whowasaheadofGoreinthatstatebyonly500votes.Demandsforrecounts,arulingbytheFloridaSupremeCourtinfavorofpartialrecounts,andahandfuloflawsuitsgeneratedbybothpartieswerebroughttoahaltwhentheUSSupremeCourtsplitalongpartylinesandruledthatallrecountsshouldcease.Afterfivetumultuousweeks,Bushwasdeclaredthewinner.TheearlypartofBush'spresidencysawtheUSfaceinternationaltension,withrenewedviolenceintheMiddleEast,aspy-planestandoffwithChinaandnearlyglobaldisapprovalofUSforeignpolicywithregardtotheenvironment.Onthedomesticfront,aconsiderablyweakenedeconomyprovidedchallengesfornationalpolicymakers.WhethertheUScancontinuetoholdontoitsdominantpositionontheworldstageandrejuvenateitseconomyremainstobeseen.
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英属北美殖民地的建立（1607--1733）
北美洲原始居民为印第安人。
16-18世纪，正在进行资本原始积累的西欧各国相继入侵北美洲。
法国人建立了新法兰西（包括圣劳伦斯流域下游大潮区，密西西比河流域等处）；西班牙人建立了新西班牙（包括墨西哥和美国西南部的广大地区）。
1607年，英国建立了第1个殖民据点—詹姆士城，此后在大西洋沿岸陆续建立了13个殖民地。
到达殖民地的大多数是西欧贫苦的劳动人民，也有贵族、地主、资产阶级，以英国人、爱尔兰人、德意志人和荷兰人最多。
移民中有逃避战祸和宗教迫害者，有自愿和非自愿的“契约奴”以及乞丐、罪犯；还有从非洲被贩运来的黑人。
“五月花”号（Mayflower）
独立战争（1774—1783）
英法为争夺海上霸权和掠夺殖民地而进行的七年战争，以英国胜利告终。
英国在北美接管了加拿大，控制了密西西比河以东的新法兰西，对北美殖民地全面加强控制，宣告阿巴拉契亚山脉以西为王室产业，禁止殖民地人民染指；并征收重税，严厉缉私，限制经济活动，严重损害了殖民地各阶层人民的经济利益。
从1619年弗吉尼亚建立议会起，各殖民地相继成立议会，与英国相抗衡，1765年9个殖民地举行抗议印花税大会，掀起反抗怒潮。
18世纪70年代英国进一步执行高压政策，1770年波士顿惨案发生。
1773年通过了茶税法，引起波士顿倾茶事件。
1774年颁布了5项不可容忍的法令（诸如封闭波士顿港，增派英国驻军，取消马萨诸塞自治权，确立英国对殖民地的司法权等），从政治上军事上加紧对殖民地的控制与镇压。
1772-1774年，各殖民地普遍成立通讯委员会，领导抗英斗争。
1774年9月5日，除佐治亚外的各殖民地代表在费城召开了第1届大陆会议，通过了和英国断绝一切贸易关系的决议,继而通过“关于殖民地权利和怨恨的宣言”，向英王呈递请愿书。
1775年4月18日，在波士顿附近的列克星敦和康科德，殖民地爱国者打响了反抗的枪声，揭开了独立战争的序幕。
5月，第2届大陆会议召开。
次年7月大陆会议通过独立宣言，宣布13个殖民地脱离英国独立。
独立战争开始时，双方实力悬殊，战争进行了8年。
到1781年10月，美、法联军攻下英军最后据点约克镇，独立战争基本结束。
1783年英美签订巴黎和约。
独立战争时期涌现出一批杰出的政治家，如大陆军的总司令G．华盛顿、《独立宣言》的起草人T．杰斐逊、外交家B．富兰克林、文化战士T．潘恩。
印花税条例（StampAct）
波士顿惨案（BostonMassacre）
大陆会议（ContinentalCongress）
独立战争（Waroflndependence）
独立宣言（DeclarationofIndependence）
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独立的民族主权国家的建成（1781-1814）
在战争过程中，大陆会议制订了邦联条例，1781-1787年13州组成了邦联国会，宣布成立美利坚共和国。
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升级会员 