胡壮麟 Chapter 03.docx

胡壮麟 Chapter 03.docx

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胡壮麟Chapter03

ChapterThree

Lexicon

1.Whatisword?

⏹Aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.–Avaguedefinition.

⏹Threesensesareinvolvedindefining“word”,noneofwhichissatisfactorytocopewithallthesituations.

1.1Threesensesof“word”

⏹Aphysicalunit:

aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopausesorblanks,eg

⏹Phonological:

⏹Orthographic:

Itiswonderful.

⏹Threewordsarerecognized.

⏹However,incasualspeechorwriting,itoftenbecomes:

⏹Phonological:

⏹Orthographic:

It’swonderful.

⏹Aretheytwowordsorthree?

⏹Asetofforms:

walk,walks,walking,walked

⏹Howmanywordsarethere?

⏹Iusuallyhavedinnerat6butyesterdayIhaditatseven.

⏹Howmanytimesdidtheword“have”occur?

Alexicalitemoralexeme

⏹Alexicalitemisanentryinadictionary.AlexemeWRITEincludesallofitsgrammaticalforms:

⏹write,writes,writing,wrote,written

⏹Agrammaticalunit:

sentence

clause

phrase

word

morpheme

⏹Problem:

blackboard

1.2Identificationofwords

⏹Stability:

stablelinguisticunits.

⏹chairman,butnot*manchair

⏹Relativeuninterruptibility:

thoughwerecognizethreecomponentsintheworddisappointment,wecannotpauseandaddanothercomponentinbetween,asin*disinterestappointment.

⏹Butwecanaddanotherwordbetweenwords:

Paul,（John）andMary...

⏹Aminimumfreeform:

thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutterancebyitself,eg

⏹—IsJanecomingtonight?

⏹—Possibly.

⏹Hi.

⏹Wonderful.

1.3Classificationofwords

⏹Variablevs.InvariableWords:

⏹Variablewords:

write,writes,writing,wrote,written;cat,cats.

⏹Invariablewords:

since,when,seldom,through,etc.

⏹Grammaticalvs.LexicalWords:

⏹Grammatical/Functionwords:

conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.

⏹Lexical/Contentwords:

nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs.

⏹Closed-classvs.Open-classWords:

⏹Closed-classwords:

Newmemberscannotnormallybeadded,egpronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.

⏹Open-classwords:

Newmemberscanbeadded,egnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.

⏹Wordclass:

knownasPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.

⏹Noun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,pronoun,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.

⏹Somenewtermsinwordclass:

⏹Particle:

infinitiveto,negativenot,subordinateunitsinphrasalverbs“getby”,“lookback”,etc.

⏹Auxiliary:

do,have

⏹Modalverbs:

can,will,may,must,etc.

⏹Pro-forms:

substitutesforotherterms.

⏹Pronoun:

he,she,I,they,everyone

⏹Pro-adjective:

Yourcarisred.Soishis.

⏹Pro-verb:

HespeaksEnglishbetterthanhedid.

⏹Pro-adverb:

HehopestowinandIhopesotoo.

⏹Pro-locative:

Hewentthere.

⏹Determiner:

allthearticles,demonstratives,andquantifiersthatappearbeforethenounanditsmodifiers.

⏹Asmanyasthreedeterminersmaybeusedineachcaseandthereisafixedorderwhenthereismorethanone.

⏹Predeterminers:

all,both;half,one-third,three-quarters…;double,twice,threetimes…;such,what（exclamative）

⏹Centraldeterminers:

the;this,these,that,those;PossP;we,us;you;which,what（relative）,what（interrogative）;a,another,some,any,no,either,neither;each,enough,much,more,most,less;afew,alittle

⏹Postdeterminers:

every;many,several,few,little;one,two,three…;（a）dozen

⏹*theiralltrouble

⏹*fivetheallboys

⏹*allthisboy

⏹*allbothgirls

2.Morphology

⏹Morphology:

thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,ortherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents–morphemes.

2.1Morphemes

⏹Thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.

2.2Typesofmorphemes

⏹Freevs.Boundmorphemes:

⏹Freemorphemes:

thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.

⏹Boundmorphemes:

thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.

⏹Root:

thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity,egfriendasinunfriendliness.

⏹Rootsmaybe

⏹free:

thosethatcanstandbythemselves,egblack+board;nation+-al;or

⏹bound:

thosethatcannotstandbythemselves,eg-ceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive.

⏹Affix:

thetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Normallydividedinto

⏹prefix（dis-,un-）and

⏹suffix（-en,-ify）.

⏹Base:

amorphemetowhichanaffixisadded,eg

⏹friendroot>base

⏹friendlyroot/base+suffix>base

⏹unfriendlyprefix+base>base

⏹unfriendlinessbase+suffix>base?

⏹Stem:

amorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixmaybeadded,egfriend+-s;write+-ing,possibility+-es.

⏹Inflection:

grammaticalendings,egplural,tense,comparative,etc.

⏹Derivation:

combinationofabaseandanaffixtoformanewword,egfriend+-ly>friendly.

2.3Word-formation

Inflection

⏹Nominalforms:

boys,boy’s

⏹Verbforms:

wants,wanted,wanting

⏹Adjective/adverbforms:

smaller,smallest

Compounding

⏹Twoormorefreerootscombinetomakeanewword.

⏹Nouncompounds:

daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmill

⏹Verbcompounds:

brainstorm,lipread,babysit

⏹Adjectivecompounds:

gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfree

⏹Prepositioncompounds:

into,throughout

⏹Endocentric&exocentric

⏹Endocentric:

oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof“akindof”;eg

⏹self-control:

akindofcontrol

⏹armchair:

akindofchair

⏹Exocentric:

thereisnohead,sonotarelationshipof“akindofsomething”,eg

⏹scarecrow:

notakindofcrow

⏹breakneck:

notakindofneck

⏹Writtenformsofcompounds

⏹Solid:

blackboard,teapot,bodyguard

⏹Hyphenated:

wedding-ring,wave-length

⏹Open:

coffeetable,washingmachine

⏹Freevariation:

⏹businessman,business-man,businessman

⏹winebottle,wine-bottle,winebottle

⏹noone,no-one,noone

Derivation

⏹Class-changing:

⏹N>V:

lengthen,hospitalize,discard

⏹N>A:

friendly,delightful,speechless

⏹V>N:

worker,employee,inhabitant

⏹V>A:

acceptable,adorable

⏹A>N:

rapidness,rapidity

⏹A>V:

deafen,sweeten

⏹Adj>Adv:

exactly,quickly

⏹Class-preserving:

⏹N>N:

nonsmoker,ex-wife,booklet

⏹V>V:

disobey,unfasten

⏹A>A:

grayish,irrelevant

3.Lexicalchange

⏹Formationofnewwords

⏹Phonologicalchange

⏹Morphosyntacticchange

⏹Semanticchange

⏹Orthographicchange

3.1Word-formationthroughlexicalchange

⏹Invention/Coinage

⏹Mostlybrandnames:

⏹Kodak,Coke,nylon,Band-aid,Xerox,Lycra

⏹Blending

⏹transfer+resistor>transistor

⏹smoke+fog>smog

⏹motorist+hotel>motel

⏹breakfast+lunch>brunch

⏹modulator+demodulator>modem

⏹dance+exercise>dancercise

⏹advertisement+editorial>advertorial

⏹education+entertainment>edutainment

⏹information+commercial>infomercial

⏹Back-formation

⏹diagnose

⏹enthuse

⏹laze

⏹liaise

⏹reminisce

⏹statistic

⏹televise

⏹burgle,commentate,edit,peddle,scavenge,sculpt,swindle

⏹air-condition,babysit,brainstorm,brainwash,browbeat,dry-clean,house-hunt,housekeep,sightsee,tape-record

⏹articulate,assassinate,coeducate,demarcate,emote,intuit,legislate,marinate,orate,vaccinate,valuate

Abbreviations

⏹Clipping

⏹Back-clippings:

ad（vertisement）,chimp（anzee）,deli（catessen）,exam（ination）,hippo（potamus）,lab（oratory）,piano（forte）,reg（ulation）s

⏹Fore-clippings:

（ham）burger,（omni）bus,（violin）cello,（heli）copter,（alli）gator,（tele）phone,（earth）quake

⏹Fore-and-aftclippings:

（in）flu（enza）,（de）tec（tive）

⏹Acronym

⏹AIDS,Aids:

AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome

⏹ASAP:

assoonaspossible

⏹CD-ROM:

compactdiscread-onlymemory

⏹WASP:

whiteAnglo-Saxonprotestant

⏹dink（y）:

doubleincome,nokids

⏹nilk（y）:

noincome,lotsofkids

⏹Initialism

⏹AI:

artificialintelligence

⏹a.s.a.p.:

assoonaspossible

⏹ECU:

EuropeanCurrencyUnit

⏹HIV:

humanimmunodeficiencyvirus

⏹PC:

personalcomputer

⏹PS:

postscript

⏹RSVP:

répondezs’ilvousplait（‘pleasereply’inFrench）

Analogicalcreation

⏹Fromirregulartoregular:

⏹work:

wrought>worked

⏹beseech:

besought>beseeched

⏹slay:

slew>slayed?

⏹go:

went>goed?

?

?

Borrowing

⏹French:

administration,parliament,public,court,crime,judge,army,enemy,officer,peace,soldier,war,faith,religion,coat,costume,dress,fashion,jewel,dinner,feast,fry,roast,supper,toast,customer,money,price,art,college,music,poet,prose,story,study

⏹Latin:

admit,client,conviction,discuss,equal,index,library,medicine,minor

⏹Greek:

catastrophe,cosmos,criterion,idiosyncrasy

⏹SpanishandPortuguese:

banana,barbecue,cafeteria,cargo,chocolate,cigar,cocaine,cockroach,cocoa,guitar,mosquito,negro,potato,tank,tobacco,tomato,vanilla

⏹Italian:

aria,bandit,broccoli,casino,concerto,duet,finale,influenza,mafia,malaria,paparazzi（singularpaparazzo）,piano,pizza,solo,soprano,spaghetti,studio,umbrella,volcano

⏹Dutch:

boss,brandy,cookie,cruise,deck,dock,dollar,freight,gin,kit,knapsack,landscape,luck,sketch,slim,smuggle,snap,trek,yacht

⏹Arabic:

admiral,alchemy,alcohol,algebra,alkali,almanac,assassin,candy,hazard,lemon,magazine,safari,sofa,zero

⏹Indian:

bungalow,cashmere,curry,ginger,jungle,mango,polo,pyjamas（orpajamas）,shampoo,swastika,thug,yoga

⏹Chinese:

chopsuey,chow,chowmein,ginseng,gung-ho,ketchup（orcatchuporcatsup）,kungfu,tea,tofu（viaJapanese）,typhoo