胡壮麟 Chapter 03.docx

1、胡壮麟 Chapter 03Chapter Three Lexicon1. What is word? A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. A vague definition. Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all th

2、e situations.1.1 Three senses of “word” A physical unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks, eg Phonological: Orthographic: It is wonderful. Three words are recognized. However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes: Phonological: Orthographic: Its wonderful.

3、 Are they two words or three? A set of forms: walk, walks, walking, walked How many words are there? I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven. How many times did the word “have” occur?A lexical item or a lexeme A lexical item is an entry in a dictionary. A lexeme WRITE includes all

4、 of its grammatical forms: write, writes, writing, wrote, written A grammatical unit: sentenceclausephrasewordmorpheme Problem: blackboard1.2 Identification of words Stability: stable linguistic units. chairman, but not *manchair Relative uninterruptibility: though we recognize three components in t

5、he word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment. But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary . A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, eg Is Jane coming tonight? Possib

6、ly. Hi. Wonderful.1.3 Classification of words Variable vs. Invariable Words: Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc. Grammatical vs. Lexical Words: Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronou

7、ns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Closed-class vs. Open-class Words: Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries. Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adve

8、rbs. Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. Some new terms in word class: Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc. Auxiliar

9、y: do, have Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc. Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms. Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his. Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he did. Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too. Pro-locative: He went there. Deter

10、miner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers. As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one. Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters ; double, twice, three time

11、s ; such, what (exclamative) Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; PossP; we, us; you; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a little Postdeterminers: every; many, several, few, little; one

12、, two, three ; (a) dozen *their all trouble *five the all boys *all this boy *all both girls2. Morphology Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components morphemes.2.1 Morphemes The smallest unit of language

13、in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.2.2 Types of morphemes Free vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes: those that may constitute wo

14、rds by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-. Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be free: those that can stand by themselves,

15、eg black+board; nation+-al; or bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive. Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into prefix (dis-, un-) and suffix (-en, -ify). Base: a morpheme to which an affi

16、x is added, eg friend root base friendly root/base + suffix base unfriendly prefix + base base unfriendliness base + suffix base? Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es. Inflection: grammatical endings, eg p

17、lural, tense, comparative, etc. Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly friendly.2.3 Word-formationInflection Nominal forms: boys, boys Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallestCompounding Two or more free roots combine to m

18、ake a new word. Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree Preposition compounds: into, throughout Endocentric & exocentric Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship o

19、f “a kind of”; eg self-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg scarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck Written forms of compounds Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard Hyphenated: wedding

20、-ring, wave-length Open: coffee table, washing machine Free variation: businessman, business-man, business man winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle no one, no-one, nooneDerivation Class-changing: NV: lengthen, hospitalize, discard NA: friendly, delightful, speechless VN: worker, employee, inhabitant

21、 VA: acceptable, adorable AN: rapidness, rapidity AV: deafen, sweeten AdjAdv: exactly, quickly Class-preserving: NN: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet VV: disobey, unfasten AA: grayish, irrelevant3. Lexical change Formation of new words Phonological change Morphosyntactic change Semantic change Orthograph

22、ic change3.1 Word-formation through lexical change Invention/Coinage Mostly brand names: Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, Lycra Blending transfer+resistortransistor smoke+fogsmog motorist+hotelmotel breakfast+lunchbrunch modulator+demodulatormodem dance+exercisedancercise advertisement+editorial

23、advertorial education+entertainmentedutainment information+commercialinfomercial Back-formation diagnose diagnosis enthuse enthusiasm laze lazy liaise liaison reminisce reminiscence statistic statistics televise worked beseech: besought beseeched slay: slew slayed? go: went goed?Borrowing French: ad

24、ministration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, soldier, war, faith, religion, coat, costume, dress, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast, customer, money, price, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, study Latin: admit, client, conviction,

25、discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minor Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy Spanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli

26、, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcano Dutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yac

27、ht Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zero Indian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, yoga Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoo