虚无主义 nihilism.docx

虚无主义 nihilism.docx

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虚无主义nihilism

Nihilism（pronounced/ˈnaɪ.əlɪzəm/or/ˈniː.əlɪzəm/;fromtheLatinnihil,nothing）isthephilosophicaldoctrinesuggestingthenegationofoneormoremeaningfulaspectsoflife.Mostcommonly,nihilismispresentedintheformofexistentialnihilismwhicharguesthatlife[1]iswithoutobjectivemeaning,purpose,orintrinsicvalue.Moralnihilistsassertthatmoralitydoesnotinherentlyexist,andthatanyestablishedmoralvaluesareabstractlycontrived.Nihilismcanalsotakeepistemological,metaphysicalorontologicalforms,meaningrespectivelythat,insomeaspect,knowledgeisnotpossibleorthatcontrarytoourbelief,someaspectofrealitydoesnotexistassuch.

Thetermnihilismissometimesusedinassociationwithanomietoexplainthegeneralmoodofdespairataperceivedpointlessnessofexistencethatonemaydevelopuponrealizingtherearenonecessarynorms,rules,orlaws.[2]MovementssuchasFuturismanddeconstruction,[3]amongothers,havebeenidentifiedbycommentatorsas"nihilistic"atvarioustimesinvariouscontexts.

Nihilismisalsoacharacteristicthathasbeenascribedtotimeperiods:

forexample,JeanBaudrillardandothershavecalledpostmodernityanihilisticepoch,[4]andsomeChristiantheologiansandfiguresofreligiousauthorityhaveassertedthatpostmodernity[5]andmanyaspectsofmodernity[3]representarejectionoftheism,andthatsucharejectionentailssomeformofnihilism.

History

[edit]19th-century

ThoughthetermnihilismwasfirstpopularizedbythenovelistIvanTurgenev（1818–1883）inhisnovelFathersandSons,[6]itwasfirstintroducedintophilosophicaldiscoursebyFriedrichHeinrichJacobi（1743–1819）.Jacobiusedthetermtocharacterizerationalism[7]andinparticularImmanuelKant's"critical"philosophyinordertocarryoutareductioadabsurdumaccordingtowhichallrationalism（philosophyascriticism）reducestonihilism,andthusitshouldbeavoidedandreplacedwithareturntosometypeoffaithandrevelation.BretW.Daviswrites,forexample,"ThefirstphilosophicaldevelopmentoftheideaofnihilismisgenerallyascribedtoFriedrichJacobi,whoinafamouslettercriticizedFichte'sidealismasfallingintonihilism.AccordingtoJacobi,Fichte’sabsolutizationoftheego（the'absoluteI'thatpositsthe'not-I'）isaninflationofsubjectivitythatdeniestheabsolutetranscendenceofGod."[8]Arelatedconceptisfideism.

WiththepopularizingofthewordnihilismbyTurgenev,anewRussianpoliticalmovementcalledtheNihilismmovementadoptedtheterm.Theysupposedlycalledthemselvesnihilistsbecausenothing"thatthenexistedfoundfavorintheireyes."[9]

[edit]Kierkegaard

Mainarticle:

PhilosophyofSørenKierkegaard

SørenKierkegaard（1813–1855）positedanearlyformofnihilismwhichhereferredtoaslevelling.[10]Levellingwastheprocessofsuppressingindividualitytoapointwheretheindividual'suniquenessbecomesnon-existentandnothingmeaningfulinhisexistencecanbeaffirmed:

Levellingatitsmaximumislikethestillnessofdeath,whereonecanhearone'sownheartbeat,astillnesslikedeath,intowhichnothingcanpenetrate,inwhicheverythingsinks,powerless.Onepersoncanheadarebellion,butonepersoncannotheadthislevellingprocess,forthatwouldmakehimaleaderandhewouldavoidbeinglevelled.Eachindividualcaninhislittlecircleparticipateinthislevelling,butitisanabstractprocess,andlevellingisabstractionconqueringindividuality.

—SørenKierkegaard, ThePresentAge,translatedbyAlexanderDruwithForewordbyWalterKaufmann,p.51-53

Kierkegaard,anadvocateofaphilosophyoflife,generallyarguedagainstlevellinganditsnihilistconsequence,althoughhebelieveditwouldbe"genuinelyeducativetoliveintheageoflevelling[because]peoplewillbeforcedtofacethejudgementof[levelling]alone."[11]GeorgeCotkinassertsKierkegaardwasagainst"thestandardizationandlevellingofbelief,bothspiritualandpolitical,inthenineteenthcentury[andhe]opposedtendenciesinmassculturetoreducetheindividualtoacipherofconformityanddeferencetothedominantopinion."[12]Inhisday,tabloids（liketheDanishCorsaren）andcorruptChristianitywereinstrumentsoflevellingandcontributedtothe"reflectiveapatheticage"of19thcenturyEurope.[13]Kierkegaardarguesthatindividualswhoareabletoovercomethelevellingprocessarestrongerforitandisastepintherightdirectiontowards"becomingatrueself."[11][14]Aswemustovercomelevelling,HubertDreyfusandJaneRubinarguethatKierkegaard'sinterest,"inanincreasinglynihilisticage,isinhowwecanrecoverthesensethatourlivesaremeaningful".[15]

Itshouldbenoted,however,thatKierkegaard'smeaningofnihilismdiffersfromthemoderndefinitioninthesensethat,forKierkegaard,levellingledtoalifelackingmeaning,purposeorvalue,[13]whereasthemoderndefinitionpositsthattherewasneveranymeaning,purposeorvaluetobeginwith.

[edit]Nietzsche

Mainarticle:

PhilosophyofFriedrichNietzsche

NihilismisoftenassociatedwiththeGermanphilosopherFriedrichNietzsche,whoprovidedadetaileddiagnosisofnihilismasawidespreadphenomenonofwesternculture.ThoughthenotionappearsfrequentlythroughoutNietzsche'swork,heusestheterminavarietyofways,withdifferentmeaningsandconnotations,bothpositiveandnegative.Onegeneralwayinwhichhedescribesnihilismis"asaconditionoftension,asadisproportionbetweenwhatwewanttovalue（orneed）andhowtheworldappearstooperate."[16]Whenwefindoutthattheworlddoesnotpossesstheobjectivevalueormeaningthatwewantittohaveorhavelongsincebelievedittohave,wefindourselvesinacrisis.[17]NietzscheassertsthatwiththedeclineofChristianityandtheriseofphysiologicaldecadence,nihilismisinfactcharacteristicofthemodernage,[18]thoughheimpliesthattheriseofnihilismisstillincompleteandthatithasyettobeovercome.[19]ThoughtheproblemofnihilismbecomesespeciallyexplicitinNietzsche'snotebooks（publishedposthumously）,itismentionedrepeatedlyinhispublishedworksandiscloselyconnectedtomanyoftheproblemsmentionedthere.

Nietzschecharacterizednihilismasemptyingtheworldandespeciallyhumanexistenceofmeaning,purpose,comprehensibletruth,oressentialvalue.ThisobservationstemsinpartfromNietzsche'sperspectivism,orhisnotionthat"knowledge"isalwaysbysomeoneofsomething:

itisalwaysboundbyperspective,anditisnevermerefact.[20]Rather,thereareinterpretationsthroughwhichweunderstandtheworldandgiveitmeaning.Interpretingissomethingwecannotgowithout;infact,itissomethingweneed.Onewayofinterpretingtheworldisthroughmorality,asoneofthefundamentalwaysinwhichpeoplemakesenseoftheworld,especiallyinregardtotheirownthoughtsandactions.Nietzschedistinguishesamoralitythatisstrongorhealthy,meaningthatthepersoninquestionisawarethatheconstructsithimself,fromweakmorality,wheretheinterpretationisprojectedontosomethingexternal.Regardlessofitsstrength,moralitypresentsuswithmeaning,whetherthisiscreatedor'implanted,'whichhelpsusgetthroughlife.[21]ThisisexactlywhyNietzschestatesthatnihilismas"absolutevaluelessness"or"nothinghasmeaning"[22]isdangerous,oreven"thedangerofdangers"[23]:

itisthroughvaluationthatpeoplesurviveandendurethedanger,painandhardshipstheyfaceinlife.Thecompletedestructionofallmeaningandallvalueswouldbetantamounttosuicideormass-murder.[24]

NietzschediscussesChristianity,oneofthemajortopicsinhiswork,atlengthinthecontextoftheproblemofnihilisminhisnotebooks,inachapterentitled'EuropeanNihilism'.[25]HerehestatesthattheChristianmoraldoctrineprovidespeoplewithintrinsicvalue,beliefinGod（whichjustifiestheevilintheworld）andabasisforobjectiveknowledge.Inthissense,inconstructingaworldwhereobjectiveknowledgeispossible,Christianityisanantidoteagainstaprimalformofnihilism,againstthedespairofmeaninglessness.However,itisexactlytheelementoftruthfulnessinChristiandoctrinethatisitsundoing:

initsdrivetowardstruth,Christianityeventuallyfindsitselftobeaconstruct,whichleadstoitsowndissolution.ItisthereforethatNietzschestatesthatwehaveoutgrownChristianity"notbecausewelivedtoofarfromit,ratherbecausewelivedtooclose."[26]Assuch,theself-dissolutionofChristianityconstitutesyetanotherformofnihilism.BecauseChristianitywasaninterpretationthatpositeditselfastheinterpretation,Nietzschestatesthatthisdissolutionleadsbeyondskepticismtoadistrustofallmeaning.[27][28]

StanleyRosenidentifiesNietzsche'sconceptofnihilismwiththissituationofmeaninglessness,where"everythingispermitted."Accordingtohim,thelossofhighermetaphysicalvalueswhichexistedincontrastwiththebaserealityoftheworldormerelyhumanideasgiverisetotheideathatallhumanideasarethereforevalueless.Rejectionofidealismthusresultsinnihilism,becauseonlysimilarlytranscendentidealswouldliveuptothepreviousstandardsthatthenihiliststillimplicitlyholds.[29]TheinabilityforChristianitytoserveasasourceofvaluatingtheworldisreflectedinNietzsche'sfamousaphorismofthemadmanintheGayScience.[30]ThedeathofGod,inparticularthestatementthat"wekilledhim",issimilartotheself-dissolutionofChristiandoctrine:

duetotheadvancesofthesciences,whichforNietzscheshowthatmanistheproductofevolution,thatearthhasnospecialplaceamongthestarsandthathistoryisnotprogress