Aristotles Rhetoric book 2.docx
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Rhetoric
ByAristotle
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Rhetoric
ByAristotle
Written350B.C.E
TranslatedbyW.RhysRoberts
TableofContents
BookII
Part1
Wehavenowconsideredthematerialstobeusedinsupportingoropposinga
politicalmeasure,inpronouncingeulogiesorcensures,andforprosecution
anddefenceinthelawcourts.Wehaveconsideredthereceivedopinionson
whichwemaybestbaseourargumentssoastoconvinceourhearers-those
opinionswithwhichourenthymemesdeal,andoutofwhichtheyarebuilt,in
eachofthethreekindsoforatory,accordingtowhatmaybecalledthe
specialneedsofeach.
Butsincerhetoricexiststoaffectthegivingofdecisions-thehearersdecide
betweenonepoliticalspeakerandanother,andalegalverdictisa
decision-theoratormustnotonlytrytomaketheargumentofhisspeech
demonstrativeandworthyofbelief;hemustalsomakehisowncharacterlook
rightandputhishearers,whoaretodecide,intotherightframeofmind.
Particularlyinpoliticaloratory,butalsoinlawsuits,itaddsmuchtoan
orator'sinfluencethathisowncharactershouldlookrightandthatheshould
bethoughttoentertaintherightfeelingstowardshishearers;andalsothat
hishearersthemselvesshouldbeinjusttherightframeofmind.Thatthe
orator'sowncharactershouldlookrightisparticularlyimportantin
politicalspeaking:
thattheaudienceshouldbeintherightframeofmind,in
lawsuits.Whenpeoplearefeelingfriendlyandplacable,theythinkonesort
ofthing;whentheyarefeelingangryorhostile,theythinkeithersomething
totallydifferentorthesamethingwithadifferentintensity:
whentheyfeel
friendlytothemanwhocomesbeforethemforjudgement,theyregardhimas
havingdonelittlewrong,ifany;whentheyfeelhostile,theytakethe
oppositeview.Again,iftheyareeagerfor,andhavegoodhopesof,athing
thatwillbepleasantifithappens,theythinkthatitcertainlywillhappen
andbegoodforthem:
whereasiftheyareindifferentorannoyed,theydonot
thinkso.
Therearethreethingswhichinspireconfidenceintheorator'sown
character-thethree,namely,thatinduceustobelieveathingapartfromany
proofofit:
goodsense,goodmoralcharacter,andgoodwill.Falsestatements
andbadadviceareduetooneormoreofthefollowingthreecauses.Men
eitherformafalseopinionthroughwantofgoodsense;ortheyformatrue
opinion,butbecauseoftheirmoralbadnessdonotsaywhattheyreallythink;
orfinally,theyarebothsensibleandupright,butnotwelldisposedtotheir
hearers,andmayfailinconsequencetorecommendwhattheyknowtobethe
bestcourse.Thesearetheonlypossiblecases.Itfollowsthatanyonewhois
thoughttohaveallthreeofthesegoodqualitieswillinspiretrustinhis
audience.Thewaytomakeourselvesthoughttobesensibleandmorallygood
mustbegatheredfromtheanalysisofgoodnessalreadygiven:
thewayto
establishyourowngoodnessisthesameasthewaytoestablishthatof
others.Goodwillandfriendlinessofdispositionwillformpartofour
discussionoftheemotions,towhichwemustnowturn.
TheEmotionsareallthosefeelingsthatsochangemenastoaffecttheir
judgements,andthatarealsoattendedbypainorpleasure.Suchareanger,
pity,fearandthelike,withtheiropposites.Wemustarrangewhatwehaveto
sayabouteachofthemunderthreeheads.Take,forinstance,theemotionof
anger:
herewemustdiscover
(1)whatthestateofmindofangrypeopleis,
(2)whothepeoplearewithwhomtheyusuallygetangry,and(3)onwhat
groundstheygetangrywiththem.Itisnotenoughtoknowoneoreventwoof
thesepoints;unlessweknowallthree,weshallbeunabletoarouseangerin
anyone.Thesameistrueoftheotheremotions.Sojustasearlierinthis
workwedrewupalistofusefulpropositionsfortheorator,letusnow
proceedinthesamewaytoanalysethesubjectbeforeus.
Part2
Angermaybedefinedasanimpulse,accompaniedbypain,toaconspicuous
revengeforaconspicuousslightdirectedwithoutjustificationtowardswhat
concernsoneselfortowardswhatconcernsone'sfriends.Ifthisisaproper
definitionofanger,itmustalwaysbefelttowardssomeparticular
individual,e.g.Cleon,andnot'man'ingeneral.Itmustbefeltbecausethe
otherhasdoneorintendedtodosomethingtohimoroneofhisfriends.It
mustalwaysbeattendedbyacertainpleasure-thatwhicharisesfromthe
expectationofrevenge.Forsincenobodyaimsatwhathethinkshecannot
attain,theangrymanisaimingatwhathecanattain,andthebeliefthatyou
willattainyouraimispleasant.Henceithasbeenwellsaidaboutwrath,
"Sweeteritisbyfarthanthehoneycomb
"drippingwithsweetness,
"Andspreadsthroughtheheartsofmen."
Itisalsoattendedbyacertainpleasurebecausethethoughtsdwelluponthe
actofvengeance,andtheimagesthencalledupcausepleasure,likethe
imagescalledupindreams.
Nowslightingistheactivelyentertainedopinionofsomethingasobviouslyof
noimportance.Wethinkbadthings,aswellasgoodones,haveserious
importance;andwethinkthesameofanythingthattendstoproducesuch
things,whilethosewhichhavelittleornosuchtendencyweconsider
unimportant.Therearethreekindsofslighting-contempt,spite,and
insolence.
(1)Contemptisonekindofslighting:
youfeelcontemptforwhat
youconsiderunimportant,anditisjustsuchthingsthatyouslight.
(2)
Spiteisanotherkind;itisathwartinganotherman'swishes,nottoget
somethingyourselfbuttopreventhisgettingit.Theslightarisesjustfrom
thefactthatyoudonotaimatsomethingforyourself:
clearlyyoudonot
thinkthathecandoyouharm,forthenyouwouldbeafraidofhiminsteadof
slightinghim,noryetthathecandoyouanygoodworthmentioning,forthen
youwouldbeanxioustomakefriendswithhim.(3)Insolenceisalsoaformof
slighting,sinceitconsistsindoingandsayingthingsthatcauseshameto
thevictim,notinorderthatanythingmayhappentoyourself,orbecause
anythinghashappenedtoyourself,butsimplyforthepleasureinvolved.
(Retaliationisnot'insolence',butvengeance.)Thecauseofthepleasure
thusenjoyedbytheinsolentmanisthathethinkshimselfgreatlysuperiorto
otherswhenill-treatingthem.Thatiswhyyouthsandrichmenareinsolent;
theythinkthemselvessuperiorwhentheyshowinsolence.Onesortofinsolence
istorobpeopleofthehonourduetothem;youcertainlyslightthemthus;
foritistheunimportant,forgoodorevil,thathasnohonourpaidtoit.So
Achillessaysinanger:
"Hehathtakenmyprizeforhimself
"andhathdonemedishonour,"
and
"Likeanalienhonouredbynone,"
meaningthatthisiswhyheisangry.Amanexpectstobespeciallyrespected
byhisinferiorsinbirth,incapacity,ingoodness,andgenerallyinanything
inwhichheismuchtheirsuperior:
aswheremoneyisconcernedawealthyman
looksforrespectfromapoorman;wherespeakingisconcerned,themanwitha
turnfororatorylooksforrespectfromonewhocannotspeak;theruler
demandstherespectoftheruled,andthemanwhothinksheoughttobea
rulerdemandstherespectofthemanwhomhethinksheoughttoberuling.
Henceithasbeensaid
"Greatisthewrathofkings,whosefatherisZeusalmighty,"
and
"Yea,buthisrancourabidethlongafterwardalso,"
theirgreatresentmentbeingduetotheirgreatsuperiority.Thenagainaman
looksforrespectfromthosewhohethinksowehimgoodtreatment,andthese
arethepeoplewhomhehastreatedoristreatingwell,ormeansorhasmeant
totreatwell,eitherhimself,orthroughhisfriends,orthroughothersat
hisrequest.
Itwillbeplainbynow,fromwhathasbeensaid,
(1)inwhatframeofmind,
(2)withwhatpersons,and(3)onwhatgroundspeoplegrowangry.
(1)The
frameofmindisthatofoneinwhichanypainisbeingfelt.Inthat
condition,amanisalwaysaimingatsomething.Whether,then,anotherman
opposeshimeitherdirectlyinanyway,asbypreventinghimfromdrinking
whenheisthirsty,orindirectly,theactappearstohimjustthesame;
whethersomeoneworksagainsthim,orfailstoworkwithhim,orotherwise
vexeshimwhileheisinthismood,heisequallyangryinallthesecases.
Hencepeoplewhoareafflictedbysicknessorpovertyorloveorthirstorany
otherunsatisfieddesiresarepronetoangerandeasilyroused:
especially
againstthosewhoslighttheirpresentdistress.Thusasickmanisangeredby
disregardofhisillness,apoormanbydisregardofhispoverty,amanaging
warbydisregardofthewarheiswaging,aloverbydisregardofhislove,
andsothroughout,anyothersortofslightbeingenoughifspecialslights
arewanting.Eachmanispredisposed,bytheemotionnowcontrollinghim,to
hisownparticularanger.Further,weareangeredifwehappentobeexpecting
acontraryresult:
foraquiteunexpectedevilisspeciallypainful,justas
th