Key Issues in English for Specific Purposescurriculum develomentWord文件下载.docx
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languagedeliveryandemploymentawareness.Althoughtheemploymentawarenessphase(independentlydevelopedanddeliveredbyLocalAgenciesServingImmigrants)wasanintegralcomponentoftheprogram,thefocusofthispaperisoninsightsgainedfromthelanguage-deliveryphase.
DudleyEvansandSt.John(1998)identifyfivekeyrolesfortheESPpractitioner:
∙teacher
∙coursedesignerandmaterialsprovider
∙collaborator
∙researcher
∙evaluator.
ItistheroleofESPpractitionerascoursedesignerandmaterialsproviderthatthispaperaddresses.ThepremiseofthispaperisbasedonDavidNunan'
sobservationsabouttheteacherasacurriculumdeveloper.
Itseemsfairlyobviousthatifteachersaretobetheonesresponsiblefordevelopingthecurriculum,theyneedthetime,theskillsandthesupporttodoso.Supportmayincludecurriculummodelsandguidelines·
andmayincludesupportfromindividualsactinginacurriculumadvisoryposition.Theprovisionofsuchsupportcannotberemovedandmustnotbeseeninisolation,fromthecurriculum(Nunan,1987,p.75).
Nunanrecognizedthatissuesoftime,skillsandsupportarekeyforteachersfacedwiththeveryrealtaskofdevelopingcurricula.TheintentofthispaperistoprovidetheESLinstructorasESPcoursedesignerandmaterialsproviderwiththeoreticalsupport.ThispaperbeginswithadiscussionoftheoriginsofESP.SomekeynotionsaboutESParethenaddressed:
∙absoluteandvariablecharacteristics
∙typesofESP
∙characteristicsofESPcourses
∙themeaningoftheword'
special'
inESP
KeyissuesinESPcurriculumdesignaresuggested:
a)abilitiesrequiredforsuccessfulcommunicationinoccupationalsettings;
b)contentlanguageaquisitionversusgenerallanguageaquisition;
c)heterogeneousversushomogenouslearnergroup;
andd)materialsdevelopment.
TheOriginsofESP
Certainly,agreatdealabouttheoriginsofESPcouldbewritten.Notably,therearethreereasonscommontotheemergenceofallESP:
thedemandsofaBraveNewWorld,arevolutioninlinguistics,andfocusonthelearner(Hutchinson&
Waters,1987).
HutchinsonandWaters(1987)notethattwokeyhistoricalperiodsbreathedlifeintoESP.First,theendoftheSecondWorldWarbroughtwithitan"
...ageofenormousandunprecedentedexpansioninscientific,technicalandeconomicactivityonaninternationalscale·
forvariousreasons,mostnotablytheeconomicpoweroftheUnitedStatesinthepost-warworld,therole[ofinternationallanguage]felltoEnglish"
(p.6).Second,theOilCrisisoftheearly1970sresultedinWesternmoneyandknowledgeflowingintotheoil-richcountries.ThelanguageofthisknowledgebecameEnglish.
Thegeneraleffectofallthisdevelopmentwastoexertpressureonthelanguageteachingprofessiontodelivertherequiredgoods.WhereasEnglishhadpreviouslydecideditsowndestiny,itnowbecamesubjecttothewishes,needsanddemandsofpeopleotherthanlanguageteachers(Hutchinson&
Waters,1987,p.7).
ThesecondkeyreasoncitedashavingatremendousimpactontheemergenceofESPwasarevolutioninlinguistics.Whereastraditionallinguistssetouttodescribethefeaturesoflanguage,revolutionarypioneersinlinguisticsbegantofocusonthewaysinwhichlanguageisusedinrealcommunication.HutchinsonandWaters(1987)pointoutthatonesignificantdiscoverywasinthewaysthatspokenandwrittenEnglishvary.Inotherwords,giventheparticularcontextinwhichEnglishisused,thevariantofEnglishwillchange.Thisideawastakenonestepfarther.Iflanguageindifferentsituationsvaries,thentailoringlanguageinstructiontomeettheneedsoflearnersinspecificcontextsisalsopossible.Hence,inthelate1960sandtheearly1970sthereweremanyattemptstodescribeEnglishforScienceandTechnology(EST).HutchinsonandWaters(1987)identifyEwerandLatorre,Swales,SelinkerandTrimbleasafewoftheprominentdescriptiveESTpioneers.
ThefinalreasonHutchinsonandWaters(1987)citeashavinginfluencedtheemergenceofESPhaslesstodowithlinguisticsandeverythingtodopsychology.Ratherthansimplyfocusonthemethodoflanguagedelivery,moreattentionwasgiventothewaysinwhichlearnersacquirelanguageandthedifferencesinthewayslanguageisacquired.Learnerswereseentoemploydifferentlearningstrategies,usedifferentskills,enterwithdifferentlearningschemata,andbemotivatedbydifferentneedsandinterests.Therefore,focusonthelearners'
needsbecameequallyparamountasthemethodsemployedtodisseminatelinguisticknowledge.Designingspecificcoursestobettermeettheseindividualneedswasanaturalextensionofthisthinking.Tothisday,thecatchwordinESLcirclesislearner-centeredorlearning-centered.
KeyNotionsAboutESP
Inthisdiscussion,fourkeynotionswillbediscussed.Theyareasfollows:
a)thedistinctionsbetweentheabsoluteandvariablecharacteristicsofESP,b)typesofESP,c)characteristicsofESPcourses,andd)themeaningoftheword'
inESP.
AbsoluteandVariableCharacteristicsofESP
Tenyearslater,theoristsDudley-EvansandStJohn(1998)modifiedStrevens'
originaldefinitionofESPtoformtheirown.LetusbeginwithStrevens.HedefinedESPbyidentifyingitsabsoluteandvariablecharacteristics.Strevens'
(1988)definitionmakesadistinctionbetweenfourabsoluteandtwovariablecharacteristics:
I.Absolutecharacteristics:
ESPconsistsofEnglishlanguageteachingwhichis:
▪designedtomeetspecifiedneedsofthelearner;
▪relatedincontent(i.e.initsthemesandtopics)toparticulardisciplines,occupationsandactivities;
▪centredonthelanguageappropriatetothoseactivitiesinsyntax,lexis,discourse,semantics,etc.,andanalysisofthisdiscourse;
▪incontrastwithGeneralEnglish.
II.Variablecharacteristics:
ESPmaybe,butisnotnecessarily:
▪restrictedastothelanguageskillstobelearned(e.g.readingonly);
▪nottaughtaccordingtoanypre-ordainedmethodology(pp.1-2).
Anthony(1997)notesthattherehasbeenconsiderablerecentdebateaboutwhatESPmeansdespitethefactthatitisanapproachwhichhasbeenwidelyusedoverthelastthreedecades.Ata1997JapanConferenceonESP,Dudley-Evansofferedamodifieddefinition.ThereviseddefinitionheandSt.Johnpostulateisasfollows:
I.AbsoluteCharacteristics
▪ESPisdefinedtomeetspecificneedsofthelearner;
▪ESPmakesuseoftheunderlyingmethodologyandactivitiesofthedisciplineitserves;
▪ESPiscentredonthelanguage(grammar,lexis,register),skills,discourseandgenresappropriatetotheseactivities.
II.VariableCharacteristics
▪ESPmayberelatedtoordesignedforspecificdisciplines;
▪ESPmayuse,inspecificteachingsituations,adifferentmethodologyfromthatofgeneralEnglish;
▪ESPislikelytobedesignedforadultlearners,eitheratatertiarylevelinstitutionorinaprofessionalworksituation.Itcould,however,beforlearnersatsecondaryschoollevel;
▪ESPisgenerallydesignedforintermediateoradvancedstudents;
▪MostESPcoursesassumesomebasicknowledgeofthelanguagesystem,butitcanbeusedwithbeginners(1998,pp.4-5).
Dudley-EvansandSt.Johnhaveremovedtheabsolutecharacteristicthat'
ESPisincontrastwithGeneralEnglish'
andaddedmorevariablecharacteristics.TheyassertthatESPisnotnecessarilyrelatedtoaspecificdiscipline.Furthermore,ESPislikelytobeusedwithadultlearnersalthoughitcouldbeusedwithyoungadultsinasecondaryschoolsetting.
AsforabroaderdefinitionofESP,HutchinsonandWaters(1987)theorize,"
ESPisanapproachtolanguageteachinginwhichalldecisionsastocontentandmethodarebasedonthelearner'
sreasonforlearning"
(p.19).Anthony(1997)notesthat,itisnotclearwhereESPcoursesendandgeneralEnglishcoursesbegin;
numerousnon-specialistESLinstructorsuseanESPapproachinthattheirsyllabiarebasedonanalysisoflearnerneedsandtheirownpersonalspecialistknowledgeofusingEnglishforrealcommunication.
TypesofESP
DavidCarter(1983)identifiesthreetypesofESP:
∙Englishasarestrictedlanguage
∙EnglishforAcademicandOccupationalPurposes
∙Englishwithspecifictopics.
ThelanguageusedbyairtrafficcontrollersorbywaitersareexamplesofEnglishasarestrictedlanguage.MackayandMountford(1978)clearlyillustratethedifferencebetweenrestrictedlanguageandlanguagewiththisstatement:
...thelanguageofinternationalair-trafficcontrolcouldberegardedas'
inthesensethattherepertoirerequiredbythecontrollerisstrictlylimitedandcanbeaccuratelydeterminedsituationally,asmightbethelinguisticneedsofadining-roomwaiterorair-hostess.However,suchrestrictedrepertoiresarenotlanguages,justasatouristphrasebookisnotgrammar.