LeadershipCh8BASES OF POWERWord格式.docx

LeadershipCh8BASES OF POWERWord格式.docx

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satisfactionwiththeirjobs,leadingtolackofcommitmentandgeneralemployeewithdrawal.IntheUnitedStates,Canada,andWesternEurope,coercivepowerhasseenadeclineinthelast50years.Severalreasonscontributetothis,rangingfromthelegalerosionofemployment-at-willandtheawarenessofemployeeviolenceorotherformsofretaliatorybehavior.

Equallyimportantasaneffectontherecedingpopularityofcoercionasabasisofpowerhasbeentheinfluenceofqualitymanagementtheorists,suchasPhilipCrosbyandW.EdwardsDeming.Theysuggestedthatthereisadeclineinproductivityandcreativitywhencoercivepowerisemployed.Theuseofcoercivepowerresultsinanatmosphereofinsecurityorfear.Inspiteofthisinsight,coercionasabaseofpowercontinuestoplayaroleeveninthoseorganizationsinfluencedbytheoriesofqualitymanagement.

Intimesofeconomiccrisisorthreatstothesurvivaloftheorganizationatlarge,coercionmaycometotheforefront.Coercivepowermayalsomaterializeasorganizationsattempttostreamlinetheiroperationsformaximumefficiency.Ifemployeesmustbefired,thosewhofailtoconformtotheorganizationalgoalsforsurvivalwillbethemostlikelycandidatesfortermination.Thethreatofterminationforfailuretocomply,inturn,iscoercivepower.

LEGITIMATEPOWER.

Legitimatepowerrestsinthebeliefamongemployeesthattheirmanagerhastherighttogiveordersbasedonhisorherposition.Forexample,atthesceneofacrime,peopleusuallycomplywiththeordersofauniformedpoliceofficerbasedsimplyontheirsharedbeliefthatheorshehasthepredeterminedauthoritytogivesuchorders.Inacorporatesetting,employeescomplywiththeordersofamanagerwhoreliesonlegitimatepowerbasedonthepositionintheorganizationalhierarchythatthemanagerholds.Yet,althoughemployeesmaycomplybasedonlegitimatepower,theymaynotfeelasenseofcommitmentorcooperation.

REWARDPOWER.

Rewardpower,asthenameimplies,restsontheabilityofamanagertogivesomesortofrewardtoemployees.Theserewardscanrangefrommonetarycompensationtoimprovedworkschedules.Rewardpoweroftendoesnotneedmonetaryorothertangiblecompensationtoworkwhenmanagerscanconveyvariousintangiblebenefitsasrewards.

HueydescribesSamWalton,founderofWal-MartStores,Inc.,asanactiveuserofrewardpower.Waltonreliesheavilyontheseintangibleawards,indicatingthat"

nothingelsecanquitesubstituteforafewwell-chosen,well-timed,sincerewordsofpraise.Theyareabsolutelyfree-andworthafortune"

.

Whenrewardpowerisusedinaflexiblemanner,itcanprovetobeastrongmotivator,asCrosby,Deming,andothershaveshown.Still,whenorganizationsrelytoorigidlyonrewards,thesystemcanbackfire.Employeesmaybetemptedtounethicallyorevenillegallymeetthequotastowhichoverlyrigidrewardsystemsmaybetied.

Anotherproblemassociatedwithrewardsasabaseforpoweristhepossibilitythattherewardswilldivertemployees'

attentionfromtheirjobsandfocustheirattentioninsteadontherewardsdangledbeforethem.

REFERENTPOWER.

Referentpowerderivesfromemployees'

respectforamanagerandtheirdesiretoidentifywithoremulatehimorher.Inreferentpower,themanagerleadsbyexample.Referentpowerrestsheavilyontrust.Itofteninfluencesemployeeswhomaynotbeparticularlyawarethattheyaremodelingtheirbehavioronthatofthemanagerandusingwhattheypresumeheorshewoulddoinsuchasituationasapointofreference.

Theconceptofempowermentinlargepartrestsonreferentpower.Referentpowermaytakeconsiderabletimetodevelopandthusmaynotproveparticularlyeffectiveinaworkforcewitharapidturnoverofpersonnel.

Onecommonerrorinapplyingreferentpowerincross-culturalsituations,however,comesinmisunderstandingthewaysinwhichemployeesidentifywiththeirsuperiors.Sinceidentificationwithone'

ssuperiorintheUnitedStatesishamperedbysymbolsoflegitimatepower（forexample,titlesordress）,thosewhoadvocateitsuseencouragemanagerstodressdowntotheleveloftheiremployeesandusetermssuchas"

facilitator"

and"

coach"

coupledwith"

associates"

groupmembers"

ratherthan"

boss"

subordinates."

InsocietiessuchasArgentinaorMexico,symbolsoflegitimatepowermaynotreadilyhamperidentification,whereasAmerican-styleegalitarianismmaydiminishtherespectemployeesfeelforthemanager.Inshort,U.S.employeesarelikelytoidentifywithmanagersbypersonallylikingthemandfeelinglikedinreturn,whereasArgentineandMexicanemployeesarelikelytoidentifywithmanagersbyrespectingthemandfeelingrespectedinreturn.Thus,referentpowermaybemorecross-culturallyvariablethantheotherfourbasesofpowerlaidoutbyFrenchandRaven.

ImbermandescribeshowspecializedtrainingisnowusedinthegroceryindustrytotrainLatinoimmigrantsinthedemocraticsupervisorytechniquesofU.S.managers.Inthepast,whenthesemenandwomenwerepromotedtosupervisorypositions,theytendedtorelyheavilyontheLatinomodelofauthoritarianismunderwhichtheywereraised.Themanagerialstylehinderedtheirabilitytoeffectivelysuperviseemployeesortogarnertherespecttheywereseeking.Toremedythissituation,specializedtrainingprogramsarenowutilized.Theendresultiseffectiveandconfidentsupervisors,motivatedworkers,higherproductivity,lesswaste,andbettercustomerservice.

EXPERTPOWER.

Expertpowerrestsonthebeliefofemployeesthatanindividualhasaparticularlyhighlevelofknowledgeorhighlyspecializedskillset.Managersmaybeaccordedauthoritybasedontheperceptionoftheirgreaterknowledgeofthetasksathandthantheiremployees.

Interestingly,inexpertpower,thesuperiormaynotrankhigherthantheotherpersonsinaformalsense.Thus,whenanequipmentrepairpersoncomestotheCEO'

sofficetofixamalfunctioningpieceofmachinery,noquestionexiststhattheCEOoutrankstherepairperson;

yetregardingthespecifictaskofgettingthemachineoperational,theCEOislikelytofollowtheordersoftherepairperson.

Expertpowerhaswithinitabuilt-inpointofweakness:

asapointofpower,expertisediminishesasknowledgeisshared.Ifamanagersharesknowledgeorskillinstructionwithhisorheremployees,intimetheywillacquireasimilarknowledgebaseorskillset.Astheemployeesgrowtoequalthemanager'

sknowledgeorskills,theirrespectforthesuperiorityofhisexpertisediminishes.

Theresultiseitherthatthemanager'

sauthoritydiminishesorthatthemanagerintentionallychoosesnottosharehisorherknowledgebaseorskillsetwiththeemployees.Theformerchoiceweakensthemanager'

sauthorityovertime,whilethelatterweakenstheorganization'

seffectivenessovertime.

MULTIDIMENSIONALPOWER

TraditionaltheoriessuchasthoseofFrenchandRaven,aswellastheempowermentadvocatesofthe1980s,suchasCrosbyandDeming,havetendedtoapproachpowerandauthorityasone-dimensional.Bycontrast,severalexpertshavemorerecentlybeguntoreconfigurehowpowerisviewedtoamoremultidimensionalinterweavingofrelationsorconflictingneeds.

Forexample,RobertGrantetal.describedTQM'

sconsumer-focusedgoalsandtraditionalmanagement'

seconomicmodelofthefirmastwoinherentlyopposedparadigms.Becausethesetwoparadigmsaregroundedintwoindependentsourcesofauthority,theyproducedifferentbutcoexistingdimensionsofpower.

Ithasalsobeenarguedthatauthorityisculturallybased.GeertHofstede,inoneofthemostthoroughempiricalsurveysoncross-culturalinfluencesonwork-relatedvalues,delineatedmarkeddifferencesinwhathecalled"

powerdistance."

ForHofstede,powerdistanceisthedegreetowhichmembersofaculturefeelcomfortablewithinequalitiesinpowerwithinanorganization;

thatis,theextenttowhichone'

sbossisseenashavinggreaterpowerthanoneself.Thus,viewsregardingbothpowerandleadershipshapetheconceptionofauthoritywithinanorganization.Andbecauseboththesefacetsofauthorityconceptiondifferdrasticallyfromculturetoculture,authorityitselfisconceivedofdifferentlyfromsocietytosociety.

Consequently,nosingledimensionofauthorityandpowerislikelytoholdequallyforallmanagersandemployeesinamulticulturaldomesticsettingorinthemulticulturalmilieuofthemultinationalcorporation.

Finally,onecanalsoargueagainsttheone-dimensionalviewofauthorityandpowerwhentheyareviewednotasindependentelementsintheabstract,butasintrinsicallyderivedfromrelationswithintheorganization.Powerandauthorityaremultidimensionalbecauserelationshipsarebynaturemultidimensional.

Thewaysinwhichmanagersinfluencetheiremployeesandencouragethemtobeproductivedependonmanyvariables,includingthepersonalityoftheleader,theskillsofthegroup/employees,thetaskorassignmentathand,orthegroupdynamicsandpersonalitiesofgroupmembers.Aswithleadershipstyles,eachbaseofpowerhasitsplaceinmanagementandcanproveeffectiveintherightsettingandrightcircumstances.