协作移动机器人前因和方向外文文献翻译中英文翻译外文翻译文档格式.docx

协作移动机器人前因和方向外文文献翻译中英文翻译外文翻译文档格式.docx

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ComputerScienceDepartment,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,CA90024-1596

ALEXS.FUKUNAGA

JetPropulsionLaboratory,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,Pasadena,CA91109-8099

ANDREWB.KAHNG

Editors:

R.C.ArkinandG.A.Bekey

Abstract.Therehasbeenincreasedresearchinterestinsystemscomposedofmultipleautonomousmobilerobotsexhibitingcooperativebehavior.Groupsofmobilerobotsareconstructed,withanaimtostudyingsuchissuesasgrouparchitecture,resourceconflict,originofcooperation,learning,andgeometricproblems.Asyet,fewapplicationsofcooperativeroboticshavebeenreported,andsupportingtheoryisstillinitsformativestages.Inthispaper,wegiveacriticalsurveyofexistingworksanddiscussopenproblemsinthisfield,emphasizingthevarioustheoreticalissuesthatariseinthestudyofcooperativerobotics.Wedescribetheintellectualheritagesthathaveguidedearlyresearch,aswellaspossibleadditionstothesetofexistingmotivations.

Keywords:

cooperativerobotics,swarmintelligence,distributedrobotics,artificialintelligence,mobilerobots,multiagentsystems

1.Preliminaries

Therehasbeenmuchrecentactivitytowardachievingsystemsofmultiplemobilerobotsengagedincollectivebehavior.Suchsystemsareofinterestforseveralreasons:

•tasksmaybeinherentlytoocomplex（orim-possible）forasinglerobottoaccomplish,orperformancebenefitscanbegainedfromusingmultiplerobots;

•buildingandusingseveralsimplerobotscanbeeasier,cheaper,moreflexibleandmorefault-tolerantthanhavingasinglepowerfulrobotforeachseparatetask;

and

•theconstructive,syntheticapproachinherentincooperativemobileroboticscanpossibly

∗Thisisanexpandedversionofapaperwhichoriginallyappearedintheproceedingsofthe1995IEEE/RSJIROSconference.yieldinsightsintofundamentalproblemsinthesocialsciences（organizationtheory,economics,cognitivepsychology）,andlifesciences（theoreticalbiology,animalethology）.

Thestudyofmultiple-robotsystemsnaturallyextendsresearchonsingle-robotsystems,butisalsoadisciplineuntoitself:

multiple-robotsystemscanaccomplishtasksthatnosinglerobotcanaccomplish,sinceultimatelyasinglerobot,nomatterhowcapable,isspatiallylimited.Multiple-robotsystemsarealsodifferentfromotherdistributedsystemsbecauseoftheirimplicit“real-world”environment,whichispresumablymoredifficulttomodelandreasonaboutthantraditionalcomponentsofdistributedsystemenvironments（i.e.,computers,databases,networks）.

Thetermcollectivebehaviorgenericallydenotesanybehaviorofagentsinasystemhavingmorethanoneagent.thesubjectofthepresentsurvey,isasubclassofcollectivebehaviorthatischaracterizedbycooperation.Webster’sdictionary[118]defines“cooperate”as“toassociatewithanotherorothersformutual,ofteneconomic,benefit”.Explicitdefinitionsofcooperationintheroboticsliterature,whilesurprisinglysparse,include:

1.“jointcollaborativebehaviorthatisdirectedtowardsomegoalinwhichthereisacommoninterestorreward”[22];

2.“aformofinteraction,usuallybasedoncommunication”[108];

3.“[joining]togetherfordoingsomethingthatcreatesaprogressiveresultsuchasincreasingperformanceorsavingtime”[137].

Thesedefinitionsshowthewiderangeofpossiblemotivatingperspectives.Forexample,definitionssuchas

（1）typicallyleadtothestudyoftaskdecomposition,taskallocation,andotherdis-tributedartificialintelligence（DAI）issues（e.g.,learning,rationality）.Definitionsalongthelinesof

（2）reflectaconcernwithrequirementsforinformationorotherresources,andmaybeaccompaniedbystudiesofrelatedissuessuchascorrectnessandfault-tolerance.Finally,definition（3）reflectsaconcernwithquantifiedmeasuresofcooperation,suchasspeedupintimetocompleteatask.Thus,inthesedefinitionsweseethreefundamentalseeds:

thetask,themechanismofcooperation,andsystemperformance.

Wedefinecooperativebehaviorasfollows:

Givensometaskspecifiedbyadesigner,amultiple-robotsystemdisplayscooperativebehaviorif,duetosomeunderlyingmechanism（i.e.,the“mechanismofcooperation”）,thereisanincreaseinthetotalutilityofthesystem.Intuitively,cooperativebehaviorentailssometypeofperformancegainovernaivecollectivebehavior.Themechanismofcooperationmaylieintheimpositionbythedesignerofacontrolorcommunicationstructure,inaspectsofthetaskspecification,intheinteractiondynamicsofagentbehaviors,etc.

Inthispaper,wesurveytheintellectualheritageandmajorresearchdirectionsofthefieldofcooperativerobotics.Forthissurveyofcooperativeroboticstoremaintractable,werestrictourdiscussiontoworksinvolvingmobilerobotsorsimulationsofmobilerobots,whereamobilerobotistakentobeanautonomous,physicallyindependent,mobilerobot.Inparticular,weconcentratedonfundamentaltheoreticalissuesthatimpingeoncooperativerobotics.Thus,thefollowingrelatedsubjectswereoutsidethescopeofthiswork:

•coordinationofmultiplemanipulators,articulatedarms,ormulti-fingeredhands,etc.

•human-robotcooperativesystems,anduser-interfaceissuesthatarisewithmultiple-robotsystems[184][8][124][1].

•thecompetitivesubclassofcollectivebehavior,whichincludespursuit-evasion[139],[120]andone-on-onecompetitivegames[12].Notethatacooperativeteamstrategyfor,e.g.,workontherobotsoccerleaguerecentlystartedinJapan[87]wouldliewithinourpresentscope.

•emergingtechnologiessuchasnanotechnology[48]andMicroElectro-MechanicalSystems[117]thatarelikelytobeveryimportanttoco-operativeroboticsarebeyondthescopeofthispaper.

Evenwiththeserestrictions,wefindthatoverthepast8years（1987-1995）alone,wellover200papershavebeenpublishedinthisfieldofcooperative（mobile）robotics,encompassingtheoriesfromsuchdiversedisciplinesasartificialintelligence,gametheory/economics,theoreticalbiology,distributedcomputing/control,animalethologyandartificiallife.

Weareawareoftwopreviousworksthathavesurveyedortaxonomizedtheliterature.[13]isabroad,relativelysuccinctsurveywhosescopeencompassesdistributedautonomousroboticsystems（i.e.,notrestrictedtomobilerobots）.[50]focusesonseveralwell-known“swarm”architectures（e.g.,SWARMandMataric’sBehavior-basedarchitecture–seeSection2.1）andproposesataxonomytocharacterizethesearchitectures.Thescopeandintentofourworkdifferssignificantlyfromthese,inthat

（1）weextensivelysurveythefieldofco-operativemobilerobotics,and

（2）weprovideataxonomicalorganizationoftheliteraturebasedonproblemsandsolutionsthathaveariseninthefield（asopposedtoaselectedgroupofarchitectures）.Inaddition,wesurveymuchnewmaterialthathasappearedsincetheseearlierworkswerepublished.

TowardsaPictureofCooperativeRobotics

Inthemid-1940’sGreyWalter,alongwithWienerandShannon,studiedturtle-likerobotsequippedwithlightandtouchsensors;

thesesimplerobotsexhibited“complexsocialbehavior”inrespondingtoeachother’smovements[46].Coordinationandinteractionsofmultipleintelligentagentshavebeenactivelystudiedinthefieldofdistributedartificialintelligence（DAI）sincetheearly1970’s[28],buttheDAIfieldconcerneditselfmainlywithproblemsinvolvingsoftwareagents.Inthelate1980’s,theroboticsresearchcommunitybe-cameveryactiveincooperativerobotics,beginningwithprojectssuchasCEBOT[59],SWARM[25],ACTRESS[16],GOFER[35],andtheworkatBrussels[151].Theseearlyprojectsweredoneprimarilyinsimulation,and,whiletheearlyworkonCEBOT,ACTRESSandGOFERhaveallhadphysicalimplementations（with≤3robots）,insomesensetheseimplementationswerepresentedbywayofprovingthesimulationresults.Thus,severalmorerecentworks（cf.[91],[111],[131]）aresignificantforestablishinganemphasisontheactualphysicalimplementationofcooperativeroboticsystems.Manyoftherecentcooperativeroboticsystems,incontrasttotheearlierworks,arebasedonabehavior-basedapproach（cf.[30]）.Variousperspectivesonautonomyandontheconnectionbetweenintelligenceandenvironmentarestronglyassociatedwiththebehavior-basedapproach[31],butarenotintrinsictomultiple-robotsystemsandthusliebeyondourpresentscope.AlsonotethatarecentincarnationofCEBOT,whichhasbeenimplementedonphysicalrobots,isbasedonabehavior-basedcontrolarchitecture[34].

Therapidprogressofcooperativeroboticssincethelate1980’shasbeenaninterplayofsystems,theoriesandproblems:

tosolveagivenproblem,systemsareenvisioned,simulatedandbuilt;

theoriesofcooperationarebroughtfromotherfields;

andnewproblemsareidentified（promptingfurthersystemsandtheories）.Sincesomuchofthisprogressisrecent,itisnoteasytodiscerndeepintellectualheritagesfromwithinthefield.Moreapparentaretheintellectualheritagesfromotherfields,aswellasthecanonicaltaskdomainswhichhavedrivenresearch.Threeexamplesofthelatterare:

•TrafficControl.Whenmultipleagentsmovewithinacommonenvironment,theytypicallyattempttoavoidcollisions.Fundamentally,thismaybeviewedasaproblemofresourceconflict,whichmayberesolvedbyintroducing,e.g.,trafficrules,priorities,orcommunicationarchitectures.Fromanotherperspective,pathplanningmustbeperformedtakingintocon-siderationotherr