memory文档格式.docx

memory文档格式.docx

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Forotheruses,seeMemory（disambiguation）.

Neuropsychology

Topics

Brain-computerinterfaces•TraumaticBrainInjury

Brainregions•Clinicalneuropsychology

Cognitiveneuroscience•Humanbrain

Neuroanatomy•Neurophysiology

Phrenology•Commonmisconceptions

Brainfunctions

arousal•attention

consciousness•decisionmaking

executivefunctions•language

learning•memory

motorcoordination•sensoryperception

planning•problemsolving

thought

People

ArthurL.Benton•DavidBohm•

Antó

nioDamá

sio•KennethHeilman•

PhineasGage•NormanGeschwind•

ElkhononGoldberg•DonaldHebb•

AlexanderLuria•MurielD.Lezak•

BrendaMilner•KarlPribram•

OliverSacks•

RodolfoLlinas•RogerSperry•H.M.•K.C.

Tests

Bender-GestaltTest

BentonVisualRetentionTest

ClinicalDementiaRating

ContinuousPerformanceTask

GlasgowComaScale

HaylingandBrixtontests

Lexicaldecisiontask

Mini-mentalstateexamination

Stroopeffect

WechslerAdultIntelligenceScale

Wisconsincardsortingtask

Tools

JohariWindow

MindandBrainPortal

Thisbox:

view 

talk 

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Inpsychology,memoryisanorganism'

sabilitytostore,retain,andsubsequentlyretrieveinformation.Traditionalstudiesofmemorybeganintherealmsofphilosophy,includingtechniquesofartificiallyenhancingthememory.

Thelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyputmemorywithintheparadigmsofcognitivepsychology.Inrecentdecades,ithasbecomeoneoftheprincipalpillarsofabranchofsciencecalledcognitiveneuroscience,aninterdisciplinarylinkbetweencognitivepsychologyandneuroscience.

Contents

[hide]

1Processes

2Classification

2.1Sensory

2.2Short-term

2.3Long-term

3Models

3.1Multi-store（Atkinson-Shiffrinmemorymodel）

3.2Workingmemory

3.3Levelsofprocessing

4Classificationbyinformationtype

5Classificationbytemporaldirection

6Physiology

7Disorders

8Memorization

9Improvingmemory

10MemoryTasks

11Culturalreferences

12Seealso

13Notes

14References

15Externallinks

[edit]Processes

Thereareseveralwaystoclassifymemories,basedonduration,natureandretrievalofinformation.Fromaninformationprocessingperspectivetherearethreemainstagesintheformationandretrievalofmemory:

Encodingorregistration（processingandcombiningofreceivedinformation）

Storage（creationofapermanentrecordoftheencodedinformation）

Retrievalorrecall（callingbackthestoredinformationinresponsetosomecueforuseinaprocessoractivity）

[edit]Classification

Abasicandgenerallyacceptedclassificationofmemoryisbasedonthedurationofmemoryretention,andidentifiesthreedistincttypesofmemory:

sensorymemory,shorttermmemoryandlongtermmemory.

[edit]Sensory

Sensorymemorycorrespondsapproximatelytotheinitial200-500millisecondsafteranitemisperceived.Theabilitytolookatanitem,andrememberwhatitlookedlikewithjustasecondofobservation,ormemorization,isanexampleofsensorymemory.Withveryshortpresentations,participantsoftenreportthattheyseemto"

see"

morethantheycanactuallyreport.ThefirstexperimentsexploringthisformofsensorymemorywereconductedbyGeorgeSperlingusingthe"

partialreportparadigm."

Subjectswerepresentedwithagridof12letters,arrangedintothreerowsof4.Afterabriefpresentation,subjectswerethenplayedeitherahigh,mediumorlowtone,cuingthemwhichoftherowstoreport.Basedonthesepartialreportexperiments,Sperlingwasabletoshowthatthecapacityofsensorymemorywasapproximately12items,butthatitdegradedveryquickly（withinafewhundredmilliseconds）.Becausethisformofmemorydegradessoquickly,participantswouldseethedisplay,butbeunabletoreportalloftheitems（12inthe"

wholereport"

procedure）beforetheydecayed.Thistypeofmemorycannotbeprolongedviarehearsal.

[edit]Short-term

Someoftheinformationinsensorymemoryisthentransferredtoshort-termmemory.Short-termmemoryallowsonetorecallsomethingfromseveralsecondstoaslongasaminutewithoutrehearsal.Itscapacityisalsoverylimited:

GeorgeA.Miller,whenworkingatBellLaboratories,conductedexperimentsshowingthatthestoreofshorttermmemorywas7±

2items（thetitleofhisfamouspaper,"

Themagicalnumber7±

2"

）.Modernestimatesofthecapacityofshort-termmemoryarelower,typicallyontheorderof4-5items,andweknowthatmemorycapacitycanbeincreasedthroughaprocesscalledchunking.Forexample,ifpresentedwiththestring:

FBIPHDTWAIBM

peopleareabletorememberonlyafewitems.However,ifthesameinformationispresentedinthefollowingway:

FBIPHDTWAIBM

peoplecanrememberagreatdealmoreletters.Thisisbecausetheyareabletochunktheinformationintomeaningfulgroupsofletters.Beyondfindingmeaningintheabbreviationsabove,HerbertSimonshowedthattheidealsizeforchunkinglettersandnumbers,meaningfulornot,wasthree.Thismaybereflectedinsomecountriesinthetendencytorememberphonenumbersasseveralchunksofthreenumberswiththefinalfour-numbergroupsgenerallybrokendownintotwogroupsoftwo.

Short-termmemoryisbelievedtorelymostlyonanacousticcodeforstoringinformation,andtoalesserextentavisualcode.Conrad（1964）[1]foundthattestsubjectshadmoredifficultyrecallingcollectionsofwordsthatwereacousticallysimilar（e.g.dog,hog,fog,bog,log）.

[edit]Long-term

Thestorageinsensorymemoryandshort-termmemorygenerallyhaveastrictlylimitedcapacityandduration,whichmeansthatinformationisavailableforacertainperiodoftime,butisnotretainedindefinitely.Bycontrast,long-termmemorycanstoremuchlargerquantitiesofinformationforpotentiallyunlimitedduration（sometimesawholelifespan）.Forexample,givenarandomseven-digitnumber,wemayrememberitforonlyafewsecondsbeforeforgetting,suggestingitwasstoredinourshort-termmemory.Ontheotherhand,wecanremembertelephonenumbersformanyyearsthroughrepetition;

thisinformationissaidtobestoredinlong-termmemory.Whileshort-termmemoryencodesinformationacoustically,long-termmemoryencodesitsemantically:

Baddeley（1966）[2]discoveredthatafter20minutes,testsubjectshadtheleastdifficultyrecallingacollectionofwordsthathadsimilarmeanings（e.g.big,large,great,huge）.

Short-termmemoryissupportedbytransientpatternsofneuronalcommunication,dependentonregionsofthefrontallobe（especiallydorsolateralprefrontalcortex）andtheparietallobe.Long-termmemories,ontheotherhand,aremaintainedbymorestableandpermanentchangesinneuralconnectionswidelyspreadthroughoutthebrain.Thehippocampusisessentialtotheconsolidationofinformationfromshort-termtolong-termmemory,althoughitdoesnotseemtostoreinformationitself.Rather,itmaybeinvolvedinchangingneuralconnectionsforaperiodofthreemonthsormoreaftertheinitiallearning.

Oneoftheprimaryfunctionsofsleepisimprovingconsolidationofinformation,asitcanbeshownthatmemorydependsongettingsufficientsleepbetweentrainingandtest,andthatthehippocampusreplaysactivityfromthecurrentdaywhilesleeping.

[edit]Models

Modelsofmemoryprovideabstractrepresentationsofhowmemoryisbelievedtowork.Belowareseveralmodelsproposedovertheyearsbyvariouspsychologists.Notethatthereissomecontroversyastowhetherthereareseveralmemorystructures,forexample,Tarnow（2005）findsthatitislikelythatthereisonlyonememorystructurebetween6and600seconds.

[edit]Multi-store（Atkinson-Shiffrinmemorymodel）

Themulti-storemodel（alsoknownasAtkinson-Shiffrinmemorymodel）wasfirstrecognisedin1968byAtkinsonandShiffrin.

Themulti-storemodelhasbeencriticizedforbeingtoosimplistic.Forinstance,long-termmemoryisbelievedtobeactuallymadeupofmultiplesubcomponents,suchasepisodicandproceduralmemory.Italsoproposesthatrehearsalistheonlymechanismbywhichinformationeventuallyreacheslong-termstorage,butevidenceshowsuscapableofrememberingthingswithoutrehearsal.

（Seealso:

Memoryconsolidation）

[edit]Workingmemory

Theworkingmemorymodel.

In1974BaddeleyandHitchproposedaworkingmemorymodelwhichreplacedtheconceptofgeneralshorttermmemorywithspecific,activecomponents.Inthismodel,workingmemoryconsistsofthreebasicstores:

thecentralexecutive,thephonologicalloopandthevisuo-spatialsketchpad.In2000thismodelwasexpandedwiththemultimodalepisodicbuffer.[3]

Thecentralexecutiveessentiallyactsasattention.Itchannelsinformationtothethreecomponentprocesses:

thephonologicalloop,thevisuo-spatialsketchpad,andtheepisodicbuffer.

Thephonologicalloopstoresauditoryinformationbysilentlyrehearsingsoundsorwordsinacontinuousloop;

thearticulatoryprocess（the"

innervoice"

）continuously"

speaks"

thewordstothephonologicalstore（the"

innerear"

）.Thephonologicalloophasaverylimitedcapacity,whichisdemonstratedbythefactthatitiseasiertorememberalistofshortwords（e.g.dog,wish,love）thanalistoflongwords（e.g.association,systematic,confabulate）becauseshortwordsfitbetterintheloop.However,ifthetestsubjectisgivenataskthattiesupthearticulatoryprocess（saying"

the,the,the"

overandoveragain）,thenalistofshortwordsisnoeasiertoremember.

Thevisuo-spatialsketchpadstoresvisualandspatialinforma