memory文档格式.docx

1、getanswers.Jump to: navigation, searchFor other uses, see Memory （disambiguation）.NeuropsychologyTopicsBrain-computer interfaces Traumatic Brain InjuryBrain regions Clinical neuropsychologyCognitive neuroscience Human brainNeuroanatomy NeurophysiologyPhrenology Common misconceptionsBrain functionsar

2、ousal attentionconsciousness decision makingexecutive functions languagelearning memorymotor coordination sensory perceptionplanning problem solvingthoughtPeopleArthur L. Benton David Bohm Antnio Damsio Kenneth Heilman Phineas Gage Norman Geschwind Elkhonon Goldberg Donald Hebb Alexander Luria Murie

3、l D. Lezak Brenda Milner Karl Pribram Oliver Sacks Rodolfo Llinas Roger Sperry H.M. K.C.TestsBender-Gestalt TestBenton Visual Retention TestClinical Dementia RatingContinuous Performance TaskGlasgow Coma ScaleHayling and Brixton testsLexical decision taskMini-mental state examinationStroop effectWec

4、hsler Adult Intelligence ScaleWisconsin card sorting taskToolsJohari WindowMind and Brain PortalThis box:viewtalkeditIn psychology, memory is an organisms ability to store, retain, and subsequently retrieve information. Traditional studies of memory began in the realms of philosophy, including techn

5、iques of artificially enhancing the memory.The late nineteenth and early twentieth century put memory within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. In recent decades, it has become one of the principal pillars of a branch of science called cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between co

6、gnitive psychology and neuroscience.Contentshide 1 Processes 2 Classification 2.1 Sensory 2.2 Short-term 2.3 Long-term 3 Models 3.1 Multi-store （Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model） 3.2 Working memory 3.3 Levels of processing 4 Classification by information type 5 Classification by temporal direction 6 P

7、hysiology 7 Disorders 8 Memorization 9 Improving memory 10 Memory Tasks 11 Cultural references 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 External links edit ProcessesThere are several ways to classify memories, based on duration, nature and retrieval of information. From an information processing perspe

8、ctive there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory: Encoding or registration （processing and combining of received information） Storage （creation of a permanent record of the encoded information） Retrieval or recall （calling back the stored information in response to some cue

9、 for use in a process or activity） edit ClassificationA basic and generally accepted classification of memory is based on the duration of memory retention, and identifies three distinct types of memory: sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory.edit SensorySensory memory corresponds app

10、roximately to the initial 200 - 500 milliseconds after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or memorization, is an example of sensory memory. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem t

11、o see more than they can actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling using the partial report paradigm. Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of 4. After a brief presentation, subjects were then

12、played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly （within a few hundred milliseconds）. Because this f

13、orm of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display, but be unable to report all of the items （12 in the whole report procedure） before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.edit Short-termSome of the information in sensory memory is then transferred t

14、o short-term memory. Short-term memory allows one to recall something from several seconds to as long as a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller, when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short term memory was 72 items

15、（the title of his famous paper, The magical number 72）. Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically on the order of 4-5 items, and we know that memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, if presented with the string:FBIPHDTWAIBM pe

16、ople are able to remember only a few items. However, if the same information is presented in the following way:FBI PHD TWA IBM people can remember a great deal more letters. This is because they are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of letters. Beyond finding meaning in the abbrev

17、iations above, Herbert Simon showed that the ideal size for chunking letters and numbers, meaningful or not, was three. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to remember phone numbers as several chunks of three numbers with the final four-number groups generally broken down into tw

18、o groups of two.Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad （1964）1 found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of words that were acoustically similar （e.g. dog, hog, fog, bog, log）.edi

19、t Long-termThe storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally have a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is available for a certain period of time, but is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of informat

20、ion for potentially unlimited duration （sometimes a whole life span）. For example, given a random seven-digit number, we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years th

21、rough repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory. While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley （1966）2 discovered that after 20 minutes, test subjects had the least difficulty recalling a collection of words t

22、hat had similar meanings （e.g. big, large, great, huge）.Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe （especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex） and the parietal lobe. Long-term memories, on the other hand, are maintained by

23、 more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. Rather, it may be involved in changing neural conn

24、ections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.One of the primary functions of sleep is improving consolidation of information, as it can be shown that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test, and that the hippocampus replays activity from the cu

25、rrent day while sleeping.edit ModelsModels of memory provide abstract representations of how memory is believed to work. Below are several models proposed over the years by various psychologists. Note that there is some controversy as to whether there are several memory structures, for example, Tarn

26、ow （2005） finds that it is likely that there is only one memory structure between 6 and 600 seconds.edit Multi-store （Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model）The multi-store model （also known as Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model） was first recognised in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin.The multi-store model has be

27、en criticized for being too simplistic. For instance, long-term memory is believed to be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such as episodic and procedural memory. It also proposes that rehearsal is the only mechanism by which information eventually reaches long-term storage, but evidence s

28、hows us capable of remembering things without rehearsal.（See also: Memory consolidation）edit Working memoryThe working memory model.In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a working memory model which replaced the concept of general short term memory with specific, active components. In this model, work

29、ing memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the multimodal episodic buffer.3The central executive essentially acts as attention. It channels information to the three component processes:

30、 the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.The phonological loop stores auditory information by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop; the articulatory process （the inner voice） continuously speaks the words to the phonological store （the inner ea

31、r）. The phonological loop has a very limited capacity, which is demonstrated by the fact that it is easier to remember a list of short words （e.g. dog, wish, love） than a list of long words （e.g. association, systematic, confabulate） because short words fit better in the loop. However, if the test subject is given a task that ties up the articulatory process （saying the, the, the over and over again）, then a list of short words is no easier to remember.The visuo-spatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial informa