AP Biology Review NotesgoochWord格式.docx

AP Biology Review NotesgoochWord格式.docx

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Cohesion–sticky（toitself）.Transpiration（watertowater）

Adhesion–Sticky（tootherthings）likewatertowindshield

Surfacetension–waterstriderswalkonwater

Specificheat–theamountofenergyittakestoraisethetemp.1degreeCelsius.HighSpecificHeat!

Moderationoftemperature

Evaporativecooling–whenwaterevaporatesittakesheatwithit（sweattocoolhumanbody）

Insulationofbodiesofwaterbyfloatingice–iceislighterthanliquidwater.

Importantsolvent–somethingelseisdissolvedinasolvent

Solution–solventandsolute（whatisbeingdissolved）

3hydrogenbondsperwatermolecule

pH–amountofhydrogenions（H+）andhydroxideions（OH-）

neutralis7（purewater）

acid–increaseofhydrogenions,lessthan7

base–increaseofhydroxide,morethan7

buffer–minimizeschangesinpH

Chapter4

Organicchemistry–hasCARBON

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

NucleicAcids

Carboncanmake4bonds（single,doubleortriplebonds）.

Has4valenceelectrons

Isomer–samemolecularformula–differentarrangement

Hydrocarbon–organicmoleculesconsistingofonlycarbonandhydrogen

Functionalgroups

Hydroxyl（alcohol）C-OHcarbonattachedtooxygenattachedtohydrogen

CarbonylC=OCarbondoublebondoxygen

IftheC=Oisinthemiddleofacarbonchain,itiscalledakeytone

IftheC=Oisattheend–itisanaldehyde

Carboxyl–carbonylandhydroxylC=O

OH

Amino–nitrogenbondedtotwohydrogenNH2

Phosphate–phosphatePO3

SulfhydrylSH

Chapter5

OrganicMacromolecules

Macromolecules

1-carbohydrates

2-lipids

3-proteins

4-nucleicacids

Polymer–manymonomersputtogether.

Monomer–oneunit

Putmonomerstogetherthroughtheprocessofdehydrationsynthesis（takewaterout,makethebond）–AKACondensationreactions

Breakpolymersapartthroughtheprocessofhydrolysis

（waterbreaking,addwatertobreakthebond）

Carbohydrates（1C:

2H:

1O）

4caloriespergram

Extracarbseatengetturnedintofat（longtermstorage）

Monosaccharide–onesugar（glucose,fructose,galactose）

Ribose（C5H10O5）

glucoseC6H12O6

disaccharide–twosugars

maltose–glucose/glucose

sucrose–glucose/fructose

lactose–glucose/galactose

polysaccharide–upto1,000monomers

Functions:

1.Energystorage

Starchisstorageinplants

Glycogenisstorageinanimals（muscle,liver）

2.StructuralSupport

Cellulose–plantcellwalls（undigestabletohumans）

Chitin–exoskeletonsofarthropods,andinfungi

Lipids（fats,triglycerides,phospholipids,steroids）

Hydrophobic（fearofwater）

Animalfunctions–insulationandbuoyancyinmarineandarticanimals.PLASMAMEMBRANES

Triglyceride–glyceroland3fattyacidchains（longchainsofcarbons）

saturated–nodoublebonds,solidatroomtemp,animalfat–lardbutter）,animals,cardiovasculardisease

unsaturated–hasC=Cdoublebonds,plant,fish,vegi（liquidatroomtemp）（cornoil,oliveoil）

9caloriespergram

Atherosclerosis–fatbuildupinarteries

Phospholipid

Glycerolandphosphateandtwofattyacidchains

Headregionisglycerolandphosphate–hydrophilic（attractedtowater）CELLMEMBRANE

Tailregion–onesaturateandoneunsaturatedfattyacidchain.Hydrophobic

Steroid–fourfuzedrings.Manyhormones–producedfromcholesterol

Energystorage–twiceasmanycaloriespergramthancarbs

Protectionofvitalorgans.Insulation

Proteins

Cwithacarboxylgroup,aminogroup,hydrogenatomandanRgroup

Usedforstructure,signaling,defense

50%ofcell

Aminoacidsarethemonomers

Aminoacid–aminogroupandcarboxylgroup.20differentsidechains.（Rgroup）

Dipeptide–twoaminoacidsformedbydehydrationsynthesis

Peptidebond–betweentwoaminoacids

Polypeptide–manya.a’s

Shape–

Primary–sequenceofaminoacids

Secondary–interactionofhydrogenbonds,alphahelixorbetapleatedsheet

Teriary–interactionbetweenthesecondarystructure.（globular–threedimensional）

Quarternary–twoormorepolypeptidechains.Multi-subunitprotein–Examples:

hemoglobin,DNApolymerase,collagen

Denaturation–pH,SaltConcentration,Temp,toxiccompounds

NucleicAcids

DNA–Deoxyribonucleicacid

RNA–ribonucleicacid

Nucleotide

Nitrogenousbase（adenine,thymine,cytosine,quinine,anduracil）

Pentosesugar（deoxyribose,orribose）

Phosphategroup

DNA

Heredity

Doublestranded

RNA

Singlestranded

Chapter6Cells

Thingstoknowfortoday:

Thedifferencesbetweenprokaryoticandeukaryoticcells.

Thestructureandfunctionoforganellesfoundinbothplantsandanimals.

Thestructureandfunctionoforganellesfoundineitherplantoranimalcellsonly.

Cytology–studyofcells.

Cytoplasm–insideportionofthecell

Cytosol–fluidwithincell

Prokaryotesvs.Eukaryotes

DomainsBacteriaandArchaeaareprokaryotic.

Theotherdomain,Eukarya,whichincludeskingdoms:

animals,fungi,plants,andprotists–areeukaryotic

Prokaryotes:

consideredfirstformoflife

1.Chromosomesaregroupedtogetherinaregioncalledthenucleoid,butthereisnonuclearmembrane.Thereisnotruenucleus.

2.Nomembrane-boundedorganellesarefoundinthecytosol.（freeRibosomesarefound）

3.Eukaryoticcellsare10-100timeslargerthanprokaryoticcells

4.Hasacellwallexternaltoplasmamembrane.Doesnotcontainphospholipidsortransmembraneproteins.

5.Hasacapsule–liesoutsideofcellwall（carb.）

Eukaryoticcells:

1.HaveaNucleus!

Chromosomesarefoundinamembranecalledthenucleus.

2.Manymembrane-boundorganellesarefoundinthecytoplasm.

3.Onaverage,eukaryotesaremuchlargerthanprokaryotes.

BothAnimalandPlantCells

1.Plasmamembrane–

Formstheboundaryforacell

Selectivelypermeable（letscertainthingsinandoutofthecell）

Madeupofphospholipids,proteinsandcarbohydrates.

2.Nucleus–

ContainsDNA

Largersize–noticeable

Doublemembrane

Containsporesthatcontrolwhatdoesinandout

ContinuouswithRoughER

Chromatin–complexofDNAandproteininthenucleus.Chromatincondensesintochromosomes（duringprophaseofmitosis/meiosis）

Nucleolus–regioninnucleuswhereribosomalRNAisformed.

3.Ribosomes–

Sitesofproteinsynthesis

Havelargeandsmallsubunits

If“free”floating–proteinsmadeareintendedforinsidethecell.

If“bound”（attachedtoroughendoplasmicreticulum）proteinsmadewillexportthecellorbeusedinthecellmembrane.

4.EndoplasmicReticulum（ER）

Morethanhalfthetotalmembranestructureinmanycells.

Networkofmembranesandsacswhoseinternalareaiscalledthecisternalspace.

SmoothER（noribosomes）-synthesisoflipids,metabolismofcarbohydrates,anddetoxificationofdrugsandpoisons.

RoughER（hasribosomes–appears“rough”）–proteinsaresecretedout（leavecell）.ProteinsgotoGolgibywayoftransportvesicles.

5.GolgiApparatus-likethepostalsystem.

Proteinsfromthetransportvesiclesaremodified,store,andshipped.

Consistsofflattenedsacsofmembranes,againcalledcisternae,arrangedinstacks.Golgistackshavepolarity–thecisfacereceivesvesicles,whereasthetransfaceshipsvesicles.

6.Mitochondria-（powerhouse）

Siteofcellularrespiration（ATPiscreated）

Enclosedbyadoublemembrane-theinnermembranehasinfoldscalledcristae.

7.Peroxisomes–

single-membrane-boundcompartments

transferhydrogenfromcompoundstooxygen,producinghydrogenperoxide（H2O2）.Detoxifiesalcohol

Breakdownfattyacidsthatgetsenttomitochondriaforfuel

8.Cytoskeleton–

Networkofproteinfibersthatrunthroughoutthecytoplasm.

Providessupport,motility,andregulatingsomebiochemicalactivities.

Threetypesofcytoskeletonfibers:

a.Microtubules:

madeoftheproteintubulin

largestofcytoskeletonfibers

shapeandsupportthecell

serveastracksalongwhichorganellesequippedwithmotormoleculescanmove

separatechromosomesduringmitosisandmeiosis

（formingthespindle）

structuralcomponentsofciliaandflagella（found

primarilyinanimalcells.）

b.Microfilaments:

composedoftheproteinactin

Muchsmallerthanmicrotubules

functioninsmallerscalesupport

Whencoupledwiththemotormoleculemyosin,microfilamentscanbeinvolvedwithmovement.（amoeboidmovement,musclecells）

c.Intermediatefilaments:

Slightlylargerthanmicrofilamentsandsmallerthanmicrotubules.

morepermanentfixturesinthecell

importantinmaintainingtheshapeofthecellandfixingthepositionofcertainorganelles.

9.Centrosomes–

Regionlocatednearthenucleus,fromwhichmicrotubulesgrow（theareaisalsocalledthemicrotubuleorganizingcenter.）

Centrosomescontaincentriolesinanimalcells.

AnimalCellsOnly:

Lysosomes–

Membrane-boundsacsofhydrol