Victory of the Common School Movement文档格式.docx
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VictoryoftheCommonSchoolMovement:
ATurningPointinAmericanEducationalHistory
ByCarlF.Kaestle
Americanstodaycountontheirpublicschoolstobefreeofexpense,opentoall,anddevoidofreligioussectarianism.AlthoughfamiliesarepermittedtoenrolltheirchildreninprivateschoolsattheirownexpenseintheUnitedStates,thepercentageofprivateschoolstudentshasbeenstableatabout10-12percentforhalfacentury.Thegreatmajorityofstudentsattendpublicschools,fromthefirsttothetwelfthyearofschooling,thefulfillmentofacrucialpolicydecisionmadeineachindividualstateinthenorthernpartofthecountryinthe1840s,andinthesouthernstatesinthelate19thcentury.Itwascalled"
theCommonSchoolMovement."
FreeschoolsopentoallchildrendidnotexistincolonialAmerica.Yet,somethinglikemodernAmericanpublicschoolsdevelopedinthe1840s,whenamajorityofvotersinthenorthernregionsoftheUnitedStatesdecidedthatitwouldbewisetocreatestate-mandatedandlocallycontrolledfreeschools.Oncethismodelofschoolingprevailed,thestagewassetforthecreationofaninclusivefree-schoolsystemintheUnitedStates.
IntheBritishcoloniesofthe17thand18thcenturies,schoolingwasnotcompulsory,notfreeofcharge,notsecular,notopentoall,andnotevencentraltomostchildren'
seducation.Decisionsabouttheprovisionofschoolsweremadetown-by-town.Girlswereoftenexcluded,orallowedtoattendonlythelower-levelschools,andsometimesatdifferenthoursfromtheboys.Inmosttowns,parentshadtopaypartofthetuitiontogettheiryoungeducated.ThesebarrierstotheeducationofallcharacterizedtheNewEnglandcoloniesintheNortheastaswellasthoseinthemiddle-AtlanticandtheSouth.InthosesectionsofNorthAmericathatwerethengovernedbySpainorFrance,evenlesswasdoneforeducation.ChristianmissionariesmadeintermittenteffortstoevangelizeNativeAmericansandAfricanAmericansthroughreligiouseducationacrossNorthAmerica;
butschooling,whetherlocalorcontinental,wasnotprimarilyagovernmentalmatter.
TheReligiousRootsofColonialSchooling
However,inspiteofpatchwork,casualcustomsofschoolingthroughouttheBritishcolonies,therewasapushforliteracyamongmanycolonists,basedlargelyontheProtestantbeliefthatlaypeopleshouldlearntoreadtheBibleinthevernaculartongue(thatis,forBritishcolonists,inEnglish,ratherthanLatinorGreek).Passingalawin1647fortheprovisionofschools,theMassachusettscoloniallegislaturecommentedthat"
olddeluderSatan"
hadkepttheBiblefromthepeopleinthetimesbeforetheProtestantReformation,butnowtheyshouldlearntoread.Thus,thelegislaturedecreed,townsofover50familiesshouldprovideaschool.Theydidnotspecifythattheeducationhadtobefree,nordidtheyrequireattendance.Thelawwasweaklyenforced.Ineffect,parentsdecidedwhethertosendtheirchildren;
iftheydid,theyhadtopaypartorallofthecost;
andreligionwaswithoutdoubtorquestionintertwinedwitheducationinthosedays.ThemostpopularschoolbookinBritishcolonialAmerica,TheNewEnglandPrimer,taughtchildrentheirABC'
sthroughrhymedcouplets,beginningwith"
InAdam'
sFall,Wesinnedall,"
andconcludingwith"
ZaccheusheDidclimbtheTree,OurLordtosee."
Schoolsofferedbriefterms,perhapssixweeksinwinterandanothersixweeksinsummer,attendedmainlybyyoungchildrenwhowerenotworkinginthefields.Thesepracticesswayedtotherhythmsofagriculturalworkandthedeterminationofmosttownstoprovideonlymodestresourcesforschools.Formalschoolingwasmoreextensiveforatinyelite,asitwasinAmerica'
sparentcountry,England.Inthecolonies,onlyafewboysofEuropeanancestrymightgoontomoreadvancedschoolsforEnglishgrammarandthen,foranevensmallernumber,tutoringinLatin,leadingtoHarvardCollege,orYale,orWilliamandMary.Themajorityoftheseprivilegedfewthenbecameministers,ratherthanleadersinsecularsociety.
Therestofthechildrenlearnedmostoftheirliteracy,adultroles,workskills,andtraditionsoutsideofschool,fromaconstellationofinstitutions,principallythehome,theworkplace,andthechurch.However,ascolonialsocietybecamemorehighlypopulated,morecomplex,andmorerivenbyfactioninthe18thcentury,competitionamongrivalProtestantdenominationsandquarrelsdevelopedoverreligiousdoctrine.Inaddition,politicalandfinancialissuesultimatelybroughtrelationsbetweenthecolonistsandtheEnglishhomelandtoabreakingpoint.Thus,theusesofliteracyforargumentation–bothinoralandwrittenform–grew.Andasagriculturebecamemorecommercialandefficient,itbroughtmorecashtransactions,morefocusonsinglecrops,andtheprospectofmoredistantmarkets,intothecountryside,reinforcingthevalueofliteracy.InthegrowingcoastaltownsofBoston,NewYork,Philadelphia,andCharleston,andinsomeinlandcenterslikeAlbanyandHartford,philanthropicgroupsandchurches,respondingtotheincreaseinpovertyanditsvisibility,establishedfreeschoolsforthemoraleducationofpoorchildren,onthemodelofEnglish"
charity"
schools.
TheCommonSchoolMovement
Giventhese18th-centurydynamics,onemighthaveexpectedthatwhenthecolonists'
victoryoverBritishforcesintheAmericanRevolutionfinallyleftnewly-mintedAmericansfreetoestablishrepublicaninstitutionstotheirliking,schoolswouldhavebeenhighonthelist.Indeed,manyoftheRevolution'
sleadersthoughttheyshouldbe–includingThomasJeffersonandBenjaminRush.JeffersonwrotefromFrancein1786,advisingafriendto"
preachacrusadeagainstignorance,"
andsupportfreeschoolsinVirginia.Rush,aPhiladelphiaphysicianandsigneroftheDeclarationofIndependence,proposedasimilarbillforfreeschoolsinPennsylvania.
LeadersofthismovementforstatesystemsofcommonschoolsintheearlynationalperiodcamefromboththeJeffersonianRepublicansandtheFederalists.Buttheireffortsfailedintheirstatelegislatures.Mostfreecitizens,itappears,thoughtthatthepatchworkcolonialmodeofeducationwasstillquitesufficient.Inparticular,Americanswerewaryofanyincreaseintaxes(whichhadbeenamajorpointofcontentionwithEngland)anddidnotwanttheirfledglingstategovernmentstomeddleinaffairsthathadalwaysbeenlocalmattersfortownsorfamiliestodecide.AfterJefferson'
sbillforfreeschoolsintheVirginialegislaturehadfailedtwice,hecomplainedtohisfriendJoelBarlowin1807,"
Thereisasnail-pacedgaitfortheadvanceofnewideasonthegeneralmind,underwhichwemustacquiesce."
Thus,inthecountryside,townsstilldecidedwhethertohaveaschool,andifso,howtofundit.Thecostwasusuallycoveredthroughsomecombinationoftaxesonallcitizensplustuitionfeesfortheparentsofchildrenwhoattended.Sometimesparentspaidbyprovidingfoodfortheteacherorfirewoodfortheschool,butusuallyitwascash.Parentalpaymentswerecalled"
ratebills."
Sometimestheschoolwouldbefreeforallchildrenforasetamountoftimeandthena"
continuation"
schoolwouldbeprovidedforthosewhoseparentswereabletopay.Thustheamountofschoolingachildreceivedwasinthelastanalysisdeterminedbywealth.Atmost,therewouldbeasingleschoolforeachtownordistrict.BlacksandIndiansingeneralreceivednoformalschoolingintheseinstitutions.Evenforwhitechildren,thetermswerebrief,theteachersoftenpoorlyeducated,andthebuildingsgenerallyinpoorcondition.Theruralschoolbecameafavoritetargetofschoolreformerslaterintheearly19thcentury.Michigan'
ssuperintendent,JohnPierce,calledlittleruraldistricts"
theparadiseofignorantteachers"
;
anotherreportspokeofadistrictschoolbuildinginsuchbadrepairthat"
eventhemicehaddesertedit."
TheMonitorialSchoolModel
Incities,thereweremoreopportunities.Eveninthe18thcenturyinurbanareas,therewereseveraldifferentkindsofschools,fundedindifferentwaysandwithdifferentlevelsoffinancialresources.Amodestamountof"
schoolingprovidedsomefreeinstructionforchildrenofpoorwhitesandofAfricanAmericans,oftensubsidizedbychurchesandbystateandlocalgovernment.SucheffortsresultedinAfricanFreeSchools,"
infant"
schoolsforthetwo-andthree-year-oldchildrenoftheindigent,andothertypesofsponsorship.Astimepassedandasconcerngrew,manycitiesinthenewRepublicexperimentedwithatypeofcharityschool,the"
monitorial"
school,whichbecamepopularinEngland,Europe,andLatinAmericainthe1810sand‘20s.InventedbyJosephLancaster,aQuakerschoolmasterinEngland,the"
schoolmodelencouragedmoreadvancedpupilstoteachthosewhowerelessadvanced.Lancasterwrotemanymanualsinhiseffortstopopularizethemethods.Lancasterattemptedtodefineappropriatedisciplineandtoprovidedetailedinstructionsforclassroomprocedures.Atatimewhenboyswereroutinelypaddledforschoolinfractions,advocatesapplaudedLancaster'
sideasaboutmotivationwithoutcorporalpunishment,disciplinemotivatedbyanactivecurriculumandcompetition,neutralitywithregardtoreligiousdenominations,and,perhapsmostimportant,economyof