Victory of the Common School Movement文档格式.docx

Victory of the Common School Movement文档格式.docx

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VictoryoftheCommonSchoolMovement:

ATurningPointinAmericanEducationalHistory

ByCarlF.Kaestle

Americanstodaycountontheirpublicschoolstobefreeofexpense,opentoall,anddevoidofreligioussectarianism.AlthoughfamiliesarepermittedtoenrolltheirchildreninprivateschoolsattheirownexpenseintheUnitedStates,thepercentageofprivateschoolstudentshasbeenstableatabout10-12percentforhalfacentury.Thegreatmajorityofstudentsattendpublicschools,fromthefirsttothetwelfthyearofschooling,thefulfillmentofacrucialpolicydecisionmadeineachindividualstateinthenorthernpartofthecountryinthe1840s,andinthesouthernstatesinthelate19thcentury.Itwascalled"

theCommonSchoolMovement."

FreeschoolsopentoallchildrendidnotexistincolonialAmerica.Yet,somethinglikemodernAmericanpublicschoolsdevelopedinthe1840s,whenamajorityofvotersinthenorthernregionsoftheUnitedStatesdecidedthatitwouldbewisetocreatestate-mandatedandlocallycontrolledfreeschools.Oncethismodelofschoolingprevailed,thestagewassetforthecreationofaninclusivefree-schoolsystemintheUnitedStates.

IntheBritishcoloniesofthe17thand18thcenturies,schoolingwasnotcompulsory,notfreeofcharge,notsecular,notopentoall,andnotevencentraltomostchildren'

seducation.Decisionsabouttheprovisionofschoolsweremadetown-by-town.Girlswereoftenexcluded,orallowedtoattendonlythelower-levelschools,andsometimesatdifferenthoursfromtheboys.Inmosttowns,parentshadtopaypartofthetuitiontogettheiryoungeducated.ThesebarrierstotheeducationofallcharacterizedtheNewEnglandcoloniesintheNortheastaswellasthoseinthemiddle-AtlanticandtheSouth.InthosesectionsofNorthAmericathatwerethengovernedbySpainorFrance,evenlesswasdoneforeducation.ChristianmissionariesmadeintermittenteffortstoevangelizeNativeAmericansandAfricanAmericansthroughreligiouseducationacrossNorthAmerica;

butschooling,whetherlocalorcontinental,wasnotprimarilyagovernmentalmatter.

TheReligiousRootsofColonialSchooling

However,inspiteofpatchwork,casualcustomsofschoolingthroughouttheBritishcolonies,therewasapushforliteracyamongmanycolonists,basedlargelyontheProtestantbeliefthatlaypeopleshouldlearntoreadtheBibleinthevernaculartongue（thatis,forBritishcolonists,inEnglish,ratherthanLatinorGreek）.Passingalawin1647fortheprovisionofschools,theMassachusettscoloniallegislaturecommentedthat"

olddeluderSatan"

hadkepttheBiblefromthepeopleinthetimesbeforetheProtestantReformation,butnowtheyshouldlearntoread.Thus,thelegislaturedecreed,townsofover50familiesshouldprovideaschool.Theydidnotspecifythattheeducationhadtobefree,nordidtheyrequireattendance.Thelawwasweaklyenforced.Ineffect,parentsdecidedwhethertosendtheirchildren;

iftheydid,theyhadtopaypartorallofthecost;

andreligionwaswithoutdoubtorquestionintertwinedwitheducationinthosedays.ThemostpopularschoolbookinBritishcolonialAmerica,TheNewEnglandPrimer,taughtchildrentheirABC'

sthroughrhymedcouplets,beginningwith"

InAdam'

sFall,Wesinnedall,"

andconcludingwith"

ZaccheusheDidclimbtheTree,OurLordtosee."

Schoolsofferedbriefterms,perhapssixweeksinwinterandanothersixweeksinsummer,attendedmainlybyyoungchildrenwhowerenotworkinginthefields.Thesepracticesswayedtotherhythmsofagriculturalworkandthedeterminationofmosttownstoprovideonlymodestresourcesforschools.Formalschoolingwasmoreextensiveforatinyelite,asitwasinAmerica'

sparentcountry,England.Inthecolonies,onlyafewboysofEuropeanancestrymightgoontomoreadvancedschoolsforEnglishgrammarandthen,foranevensmallernumber,tutoringinLatin,leadingtoHarvardCollege,orYale,orWilliamandMary.Themajorityoftheseprivilegedfewthenbecameministers,ratherthanleadersinsecularsociety.

Therestofthechildrenlearnedmostoftheirliteracy,adultroles,workskills,andtraditionsoutsideofschool,fromaconstellationofinstitutions,principallythehome,theworkplace,andthechurch.However,ascolonialsocietybecamemorehighlypopulated,morecomplex,andmorerivenbyfactioninthe18thcentury,competitionamongrivalProtestantdenominationsandquarrelsdevelopedoverreligiousdoctrine.Inaddition,politicalandfinancialissuesultimatelybroughtrelationsbetweenthecolonistsandtheEnglishhomelandtoabreakingpoint.Thus,theusesofliteracyforargumentation–bothinoralandwrittenform–grew.Andasagriculturebecamemorecommercialandefficient,itbroughtmorecashtransactions,morefocusonsinglecrops,andtheprospectofmoredistantmarkets,intothecountryside,reinforcingthevalueofliteracy.InthegrowingcoastaltownsofBoston,NewYork,Philadelphia,andCharleston,andinsomeinlandcenterslikeAlbanyandHartford,philanthropicgroupsandchurches,respondingtotheincreaseinpovertyanditsvisibility,establishedfreeschoolsforthemoraleducationofpoorchildren,onthemodelofEnglish"

charity"

schools.

TheCommonSchoolMovement

Giventhese18th-centurydynamics,onemighthaveexpectedthatwhenthecolonists'

victoryoverBritishforcesintheAmericanRevolutionfinallyleftnewly-mintedAmericansfreetoestablishrepublicaninstitutionstotheirliking,schoolswouldhavebeenhighonthelist.Indeed,manyoftheRevolution'

sleadersthoughttheyshouldbe–includingThomasJeffersonandBenjaminRush.JeffersonwrotefromFrancein1786,advisingafriendto"

preachacrusadeagainstignorance,"

andsupportfreeschoolsinVirginia.Rush,aPhiladelphiaphysicianandsigneroftheDeclarationofIndependence,proposedasimilarbillforfreeschoolsinPennsylvania.

LeadersofthismovementforstatesystemsofcommonschoolsintheearlynationalperiodcamefromboththeJeffersonianRepublicansandtheFederalists.Buttheireffortsfailedintheirstatelegislatures.Mostfreecitizens,itappears,thoughtthatthepatchworkcolonialmodeofeducationwasstillquitesufficient.Inparticular,Americanswerewaryofanyincreaseintaxes（whichhadbeenamajorpointofcontentionwithEngland）anddidnotwanttheirfledglingstategovernmentstomeddleinaffairsthathadalwaysbeenlocalmattersfortownsorfamiliestodecide.AfterJefferson'

sbillforfreeschoolsintheVirginialegislaturehadfailedtwice,hecomplainedtohisfriendJoelBarlowin1807,"

Thereisasnail-pacedgaitfortheadvanceofnewideasonthegeneralmind,underwhichwemustacquiesce."

Thus,inthecountryside,townsstilldecidedwhethertohaveaschool,andifso,howtofundit.Thecostwasusuallycoveredthroughsomecombinationoftaxesonallcitizensplustuitionfeesfortheparentsofchildrenwhoattended.Sometimesparentspaidbyprovidingfoodfortheteacherorfirewoodfortheschool,butusuallyitwascash.Parentalpaymentswerecalled"

ratebills."

Sometimestheschoolwouldbefreeforallchildrenforasetamountoftimeandthena"

continuation"

schoolwouldbeprovidedforthosewhoseparentswereabletopay.Thustheamountofschoolingachildreceivedwasinthelastanalysisdeterminedbywealth.Atmost,therewouldbeasingleschoolforeachtownordistrict.BlacksandIndiansingeneralreceivednoformalschoolingintheseinstitutions.Evenforwhitechildren,thetermswerebrief,theteachersoftenpoorlyeducated,andthebuildingsgenerallyinpoorcondition.Theruralschoolbecameafavoritetargetofschoolreformerslaterintheearly19thcentury.Michigan'

ssuperintendent,JohnPierce,calledlittleruraldistricts"

theparadiseofignorantteachers"

;

anotherreportspokeofadistrictschoolbuildinginsuchbadrepairthat"

eventhemicehaddesertedit."

TheMonitorialSchoolModel

Incities,thereweremoreopportunities.Eveninthe18thcenturyinurbanareas,therewereseveraldifferentkindsofschools,fundedindifferentwaysandwithdifferentlevelsoffinancialresources.Amodestamountof"

schoolingprovidedsomefreeinstructionforchildrenofpoorwhitesandofAfricanAmericans,oftensubsidizedbychurchesandbystateandlocalgovernment.SucheffortsresultedinAfricanFreeSchools,"

infant"

schoolsforthetwo-andthree-year-oldchildrenoftheindigent,andothertypesofsponsorship.Astimepassedandasconcerngrew,manycitiesinthenewRepublicexperimentedwithatypeofcharityschool,the"

monitorial"

school,whichbecamepopularinEngland,Europe,andLatinAmericainthe1810sand‘20s.InventedbyJosephLancaster,aQuakerschoolmasterinEngland,the"

schoolmodelencouragedmoreadvancedpupilstoteachthosewhowerelessadvanced.Lancasterwrotemanymanualsinhiseffortstopopularizethemethods.Lancasterattemptedtodefineappropriatedisciplineandtoprovidedetailedinstructionsforclassroomprocedures.Atatimewhenboyswereroutinelypaddledforschoolinfractions,advocatesapplaudedLancaster'

sideasaboutmotivationwithoutcorporalpunishment,disciplinemotivatedbyanactivecurriculumandcompetition,neutralitywithregardtoreligiousdenominations,and,perhapsmostimportant,economyof