新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案文档格式.docx
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thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Thehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation,thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.
2.WhatarethemajorbranchesoflinguisticsWhatdoeseachofthemstudy
Themajorbranchesoflinguisticsare:
(1)phonetics:
itstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication;
(2)phonology:
itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication;
(3)morphology:
itstudiesthewayinwhichlinguisticsymbolsrepresentingsoundsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords;
(4)syntax:
itstudiestheruleswhichgovernhowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages;
(5)semantics:
itstudiesmeaningconveyedbylanguage;
(6)pragmatics:
itstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.
3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar
Thegeneralapproachthustraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.
Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.
Second,modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.
Then,modemlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.
4.IsmodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronicWhy
Inmodemlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Becausepeoplebelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.
5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting
Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'
sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Thustheirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.
6.HowisSaussure'
sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'
sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance
Saussure'
sdistinctionandChomsky'
sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.
7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage
Firstofall,languageisasystem,.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.
Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.
Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.
Fourth,languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.
8.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem
Themainfeaturesofhumanlanguagearetermeddesignfeatures.Theyinclude:
1)Arbitrariness
Languageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.
2)Productivity
Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.
3)Duality
Languageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.
4)Displacement
Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat“displacement”means.
5)Culturaltransmission
Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.
9.WhatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguageThinkofyourownexamplesforillustration.
Threemainfunctionsareoftenrecognizedoflanguage:
thedescriptivefunction,theexpressivefunction,andthesocialfunction.
Thedescriptivefunctionisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.Forexample:
“Chinaisalargecountrywithalonghistory.”
Theexpressivefunctionsuppliesinformationabouttheuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues.Forexample:
“Iwillnevergowindow-shoppingwithher.”
Thesocialfunctionservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople..Forexample:
“Weareyourfirmsupporters.”
Chapter2SpeechSounds
1.WhatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunicationOfthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy
Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.
Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismoreprimarythanwriting,forreasons,pleaserefertotheanswertothefifthprobleminthelastchapter.
2.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused
VoicingisaqualityofspeechsoundsandafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Itiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.
3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer
Thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Thelatter,.thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.
Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesounds[l]inthefourwordsleaf[li:
f],feel[fi:
l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ].Asamatteroffact,thesound[l]inallthesefoursoundcombinationsdiffersslightly.The[l]in[li:
f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledadear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;
the[1]in[fi:
l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[1]asin“leaf”.Itiscalleddark[]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombination[helθ],thesound[l]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[θ],itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[l],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[、]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helθ].
Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[pht]andspitistranscribedas[spt].
4.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified
Englishconsonan