法律英语课文总结何家弘Word文档下载推荐.docx

法律英语课文总结何家弘Word文档下载推荐.docx

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nations--thefirstonetobemadeoutofanOldWorldcolony.Ithastheoldestwrittenconstitution,theoldestcontinuousfederalsystem,andtheoldestpracticeofself-governmentofanynation.

OneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofAmericansyouthisthatthewholeofitshistorybelongsintheperiodsincetheinventionoftheprintingpress.Thewholeofitshistoryis,therefore,recorded:

indeed,itissafetosaythatnoothermajornationhassocomprehensivearecordofitshistoryashastheUnitedStates,foreventssuchasthosethatarelostinthelegendarypastofItalyorFranceorEnglandarepartoftheprintedrecordoftheUnitedStates.AndtheAmericanrecordisnotonlycomprehensive;

itisimmense.ItembracesnotonlytherecordofthecolonialeraandoftheNationsince1776,butofthepresentfiftyStatesaswell,andtheintricatenetworkofrelationshipsbetweenStatesandNation.Thus,totakeaveryelementaryexample,thereportsoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtfillsome350volumes,andthereportsofsomeStatesarealmostequallyvoluminous:

thereaderwhowantstotracethehistoryoflawinAmericaisconfrontedwithover5,000stoutvolumesoflegalcases.

Noonedocument,nohandfulofdocuments,canproperlybesaidtorevealthecharacterofapeopleoroftheirgovernment.Butwhenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsstrikeaconsistentnote,overmorethanahundredyears,wehavearighttosaythatisthekeynote.Whenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsaddressthemselvesinthesameways,tothesameoverarchingproblems,wehavearighttoreadfromthemcertainconclusionswhichwecancallnationalcharacteristics.

PartTwo

TheAmericanlegalsystem,liketheEnglish,ismethodologicallymainlyacaselawsystem.Mostfieldsofprivatelawstillconsistprimarilyofcaselawandtheextensiveandsteadilygrowingstatutorylawcontinuestobesubjecttobindinginterpretationthroughcaselaw.KnowledgeofthecaselawmethodaswellasofthetechniqueofworkingwithcaselawthereforeisofcentralimportanceforanunderstandingofAmericanlawandlegalmethodology.

TheCommonLawishistoricallythecommongenerallaw--withsupremacyoverlocallaw--whichwasdecreedbytheitinerantjudgesoftheEnglishroyalcourt.Theenforcementofaclaimpresupposedtheexistenceofaspecialformofaction,awrit,withtheresultthattheoriginalcommonlawrepresentedasystemof"

actions"

similartothatofclassicalRomanlaw.Ifawritexisted（in1227）aclaimcouldbeenforced;

therewasnorecourseforaclaimwithoutawrit,theclaimdidnotexist.Thissystembecameinflexiblewhenthe"

ProvisionsofOxford"

（1258）prohibitedthecreationofnewwrits,exceptfortheflexibilitywhichthe"

writuponthecase"

allowedandwhichlaterledtothedevelopmentofcontractandtortlaw.

Thenarrowlimitsoftheformsofactionandthelimitedrecoursetheyprovidedledtothedevelopmentofequitylawandequitycaselaw."

Equity"

initsgeneralmeaningofdoing"

equity"

decidingexaequoetbono,wasfirstgrantedbytheKing,andlaterbyhisChancelloras"

keeperoftheKing'

sconscience"

toaffordreliefinhardshipcases.Inthefifteenthcentury,however,equitylawandequitycaselawdevelopedintoanindependentlegalsystemandjudiciary（CourtofChancery）whichcompetedwiththeordinarycommonlawcourts.Itsrulesandmaximsbecamefixedand,toadegree,inflexibleasinanylegalsystem.Specialcharacteristicsofequitylawinclude:

reliefintheformofspecificperformance（incontrasttothecommonlawawardofcompensatorydamages）,theinjunction（atemporaryorfinalordertodoornottodoaspecificact）,thedevelopmentofsocalledmaximsofequitylawwhichpermeatedtheentirelegalsystemandinmanycasesexplaintheoriginofmodernlegalconcepts.However,equitablereliefregularlywilllieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefisinadequate.Forinstance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealpropertywillbegrantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesincetheycannotcompensatethebuyerinviewoftheuniquenessattributedtorealproperty.

Asthecommonlaw,equitylawbecamepartofAmericanlaweitherthroughjudicialacceptanceorthroughexpressstatutoryprovision.Today,bothlegalsystemshavebeenmergedinmanyAmericanjurisdictions（beginningwithNewYorkin1848）,withtheresultthatthereisonlyoneformofcivilsuitinthesejurisdictionsaswellasinfederalpractice.OnlyfewStatescontinuetomaintainaseparatechancerycourt.Nevertheless,thereferencetothehistoricaldevelopmentisimportantbecause,ontheonehand,itexplainstheoriginandsignificanceofmanycontemporarylegalconcepts（forinstancethedivisionoftitleinthelawofproperty）and,ontheotherhand,itisstillrelevantforthedecisionofsuchquestionswhether,forinstance,thereisarighttoatrialbyjury（onlyinthecaseofcommonlawsuits,inothercasesonlybeforethejudge）.Inaddition,thedifferentiationwilldeterminewhetherthe"

ordinary"

commonlawreliefofdamagesappliesorwhetherthe"

extraordinary"

equityremedyofspecificperformanceisavailable.

"

Caselaw"

describestheentirebodyofjudge-madelawandtodayincludescommonlawandequityprecedents.Inimpreciseandconfusingusagetheterms"

commonlaw"

and"

caselaw"

areoftenusedsynonymously,withtheterm"

inthisusageconnotingjudge-madelawingeneralascontrastedwithstatutorylaw."

alwaysconnotesjudg-madelaw,while"

incontrast--dependingonthemeaningintended--describeseitherthejudgemadelawincommonlawsubjectmattersor,

LessonTwo：

LegalProfession法律职业

PartOne：

TheBar

Theregulationofthelegalprofessionisprimarilytheconcernofthestates,eachofwhichhasitsownrequirementsforadmissiontopractice.Mostrequirethreeyearsofcollegeandalawdegree.Eachstateadministersitsownwrittenexaminationtoapplicantsforitsbar.Almostallstates,however,makeuseoftheMultistateBarExam,adaylongmultiplechoicetest,towhichthestateaddsadaylongessayexaminationemphasizingitsownlaw.Noapprenticeshipisrequiredeitherbeforeorafteradmission.

Alawyer'

spracticeisusuallyconfinedtoasinglecommunityfor,althoughalawyermaytraveltorepresentclients,oneisonlypermittedtopracticeinastatewhereonehasbeenadmitted.However,onewhomovestoanotherstatecanusuallybeadmittedwithoutexaminationifonehaspracticedinastatewhereonehasbeenadmittedforsometime,oftenfiveyears.

Alawyermaynotonlypracticelaw,butispermittedtoengageinanyactivitythatisopentoothercitizens.Itisnotuncommonforthepracticinglawyertoserveonboardsofdirectorsofcorporateclients,toengageinbusiness,andtoparticipateactivelyinpublicaffairs.Alawyerremainsamemberofthebarevenafterbecomingajudge,anemployeeofthegovernmentorofaprivatebusinessconcern,oralawteacher,andmayreturntoprivatepracticefromtheseotheractivities.Arelativelysmallnumberoflawyersgiveuppracticeforresponsibleexecutivepositionsincommerceandindustry.ThemobilityaswellasthesenseofpublicresponsibilityintheprofessionisevidencedbythecareerofHarlanFiskeStonewhowas,atvarioustimes,asuccessfulNewYorklawyer,aprofessoranddeanoftheColumbiaSchoolofLaw,AttorneyGeneraloftheUnitedStates,andChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates.

Thereisnoformaldivisionamonglawyersaccordingtofunction.ThedistinctionbetweenbarristersandsolicitorsfoundinEnglanddidnottakerootintheUnitedStates,andthereisnobranchoftheprofessionthathasaspecialorexclusiverighttoappearincourt,noristhereabranchthatspecializesinthepreparationoflegalinstruments.TheAmericanlawyersdomainincludesadvocacy,counselling,anddrafting.Furthermore,withinthespherebroadlydefinedasthe"

practiceoflaw"

thedomainisexclusiveandisnotopentoothers.Inthefieldofadvocacy,therulesarefairlyclear:

anyindividualmayrepresenthimselforherselfincourtbut,withtheexceptionofafewinferiorcourts,onlyalawyermayrepresentanotherincourt.Nonlawyersare,however,authorizedtorepresentothersinformalproceedingsofajudicialnaturebeforesomeadministrativeagencies.Thelinesofdemarcationarelessclearintheareasofcounsellinganddraftingoflegalinstruments,asforexamplebetweenthepracticeoflawandthatofaccountinginthefieldoffederalincometaxation.However,thestrictapproachofmostAmericancourtsisindicatedbyadecisionofNewYorkshighestcourtthatalawyeradmittedtopracticeinaforeigncountrybutnotinNewYorkisprohibitedfromgivinglegaladvicetoclientsinNewYork,eventhoughtheadviceislimitedtothelawoftheforeigncountrywherethelawyerisadmitted.Aforeignlawyermay,however,beadmittedtothebarofoneofthestatesandmay,evenwithoutbeingadmitted,adviseanAmericanlawyerasaconsultantonforeignlaw.

PartTwo：

LawyersinPrivatePractice

Amongthesefifteenlawyersinpractice,nine,aclearmajority,aresinglepractitioners.Theremainingsixpracticeinlawfirms,whicharegenerallyorganizedaspartnerships.Fourorfiveofthesesixarepartnersandtheothersareassociates,atermapp