博弈论2讲义Word下载.docx

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博弈论2讲义Word下载.docx

但是在一些特殊的博弈中,一个参与人的最优战略可能并不依赖于其他参与人的战略选择。

也就是说,不管其他参与人选择什么战略,他的最优战略是唯一的,这样的最优战略被称为“占优战略”。

DefinitionStrategysiisstrictlydominatedforplayeriifthereissome

suchthat

foral

Propositionarationalplayerwillnotplayastrictlydominatedstrategy.

抵赖isadominatedstrategy.Arationalplayerwouldthereforenever抵赖.Thissolvesthegamesinceeveryplayerwill坦白.NoticethatIdon'

thavetoknowanythingabouttheotherplayer.

囚徒困境:

个人理性与集体理性之间的矛盾。

ThisresulthighlightsthevalueofcommitmentinthePrisoner'

sdilemma–commitmentconsistsofcrediblyplayingstrategy抵赖.

囚徒困境的广泛应用:

军备竞赛、卡特尔、公共品的供给。

9.2.3IteratedDeletionofDominatedStrategies(重复剔除劣战略)

智猪博弈(boxedpigs)

小猪

等待

大猪

3,1

2,4

7,-1

0,0

此博弈没有占优战略均衡。

因为尽管“等待”是小猪的占优战略,但是大猪没有占优战略。

大猪的最优战略依赖于小猪的占略:

---。

大猪会正确地预测到小猪会选择“等待”;

给定此预测,大猪的最优选择只能是“按”。

这样,(按,等待)就是唯一的均衡。

重复剔除的占优均衡:

先剔除某个参与人的劣策略,重新构造新的博弈,再剔除,---。

应用:

大股东监督经理,小股东搭便车;

大企业研发,小企业模仿。

9.2.4Nashequilibrium

性别战博弈(battleofthesexes):

足球赛

演唱会

2,1

1,2

在上面的博弈中,两个参与者都没有占优策略,每个参与者的最优策略都依赖于另一个参与人的战略。

所以,没有重复剔除的占优均衡。

DefinitionAstrategyprofiles*isapurestrategyNashequilibriumofGifandonlyif

forallplayersiandall

求解Nash均衡的方法。

ANashequilibriumcapturestheideaofequilibrium:

Bothplayersknowwhatstrategytheotherplayerisgoingtochoose,andnoplayerhasanincentivetodeviatefromequilibriumplaybecauseherstrategyisabestresponsetoherbeliefabouttheotherplayer'

sstrategy.

对纳什均衡的理解:

设想所有参与者在博弈之前达成一个(没有约束力的)协议,规定每个参与人选择一个特定的战略。

那么,给定其他参与人都遵守此协议,是否有人不愿意遵守此协议?

如果没有参与人有积极性单方面背离此协议,我们说这个协议是可以自动实施的(self-enforcing),这个协议就构成一个纳什均衡。

否则,它就不是一个纳什均衡。

问题:

纳什均衡与重复剔除(严格)劣战略均衡之间的关系。

9.2.5CournotCompetition(古诺竞争)

Thisgamehasaninfinitestrategyspace.

Twofirmschooseoutputlevelsqi,costfunctionci(qi)=cqi.

marketdemanddeterminesaprice

theproductsofbothfirmsareperfectsubstitutes,i.e.theyarehomogenousproducts.

D={1;

2}

S1=S2=R+

u1(q1,q2)=q1f(q1+q2)-c1(q1)

u2(q1,q2)=q2f(q1+q2)-c2(q2)

the'

best-response'

functionBR(qj)ofeachfirmitothequantitychoiceqjoftheotherfirm:

,得FOC:

Thebest-responsefunctionisdecreasinginmybeliefoftheotherfirm'

saction.

UsingournewresultitiseasytoseethattheuniqueNashequilibriumoftheCournotgameistheintersectionofthetwoBRfunctions.

Becauseofsymmetryweknowthatq1=q2=q*.

Henceweobtain

Thisgivesusthesolution

将寡头竞争的古诺均衡与垄断企业的最优产量和利润进行比较。

9.2.6BertrandCompetition(伯特兰竞争)

Firmscompeteinahomogenousproductmarketbuttheysetprices.

Consumersbuyfromthelowestcostfirm.

demandcurveq=D(p)

Therefore,eachfirmfacesdemand

WealsoassumethatD(c)>

0,i.e.firmscansellapositivequantityiftheypriceatmarginalcost.

LemmaTheBertrandgamehastheuniqueNE

=(c;

c).

Proof:

Firstwemustshowthat(c,c)isaNE.Itiseasytoseethateachfirmmakeszeroprofits.Deviatingtoapricebelowcwouldcauselossestothedeviatingfirm.Ifanyfirmsetsahigherpriceitdoesnotsellanyoutputandalsomakeszeroprofits.Therefore,thereisnoincentivetodeviate.

Toshowuniquenesswemustshowthatanyotherstrategyprofile(p1;

p2)isnotaNE.It'

seasiesttodistinguishlotsofcases.

CaseI:

p1<

corp2<

c.Inthiscaseone(orbothplayers)makesnegativelosses.Thisplayershouldsetapriceabovehisrival'

spriceandcuthislossesbynotsellinganyoutput.

CaseII:

c<

p1<

p2orc<

p2<

p1.Inthiscasethefirmwiththehigherpricemakeszeroprofits.Itcouldprofitablydeviatebysettingapriceequaltotherival'

spriceandthuscaptureatleasthalfofhismarket,andmakestrictlypositiveprofits.

CaseIII:

c=p1<

p2orc=p2<

p1.Nowthelowerpricefirmcanchargeapriceslightlyabovemarginalcost(butstillbelowthepriceoftherival)andmakestrictlypositiveprofits.

CaseIV:

c<

p1=p2.Firm1couldprofitablydeviatebysettingaprice

.Thefirm'

sprofitsbeforeandafterthedeviationare:

Notethatthedemandfunctionisdecreasing,so

.Wecanthereforededuce:

Thisexpression(thegainfromdeviating)isstrictlypositiveforsufficientlysmall

.Therefore,(p1;

p2)cannotbeaNE.

9.2.7MixedStrategies(混合战略)

猜谜游戏matchingpenniesgame:

 

儿童B

H(正面)

T(反面)

儿童A

1,-1

-1,1

每一个参与者都想猜透对方的战略,而又不能让对方猜透自己的战略。

Thisgamehasnopure-strategyNashequilibrium.Whateverpurestrategyplayer1chooses,player2canbeathim.如果一个参与人采用混合战略(以一定的概率选择某种概率),他的对手就不能准确地猜出他实际上会选择的战略,尽管在均衡点上,每个人都知道其他参与人在不同战略上的概率分布。

Intuitively,gamesinwhichtheparticipantshavealargenumberofstrtegieswilloftenoffersuffifientflexibilitytoensurethatatleastoneNashEquilibriummustexist.Ifwepermittheplayerstouse“mixed”strategies,theabovegamewillbeconvertedintoonewithaninfinitenumberof(mixed)strategiesand,again,theexistenceofaNashequilibriumisensured.

Supposethattheplayersdecidetorandomizeamongsthisstrategiesandplayamixedstrategy.PlayerAcouldflipacoinandplayHwithprobabilityrandTwithprobability1-r,andplayerBflipacoinandplayHwithprobabilitysandTwithprobability1-s.

Giventheseprobabilities,theoutcomesofthegameoccurwiththefollowingprobabilities:

H-H,rs;

H-T,r(1-s);

T-H,(1-r)s;

T-T,(1-r)(1-s).PlayerA’sexpectedutilityisthengivenby

Oviously,A’soptimalchoiceofrdependsonB’sprobability,s.If

utilityismaximizedbychoosing

.If

Ashouldoptfor

.Andwhen

A’sexpectedutilityis0nomatterwhatvalueofrischoosen.

ForplayerB,expectedutilityisgivenby

Now,when

B’sexpectedutilityismaximizedbychoosing

A’sexpectedutilityisindependentofwhatsischoosen.

NashequilibriaareshowninthefigurebytheintersectionsofoptimalresponsecurvesforAandB.

Or,wecangettheequilibriumthroughtheFOC

Definition:

LetGbeagamewithstrategyspacesS1,S2,..,SI.Amixedstrategy

forplayeriisaprobabilitydistributiononSi,i.e.forSi,amixedstrategyisafunction

Severalnotationsarecommonlyusedfordescribingmixedstrategies.

1.Function(measure):

and

2.Vector:

Ifthepurestrategiesare

write

e.g.(1/2,1/2)

3.(1/2)H+(1/2)T

Write

(also

)forthesetofprobabilitydistributionsonSi.

Write

for

.Amixedstrategyprofile

isann-tuple

with

Wewrite

forplayeri'

sexpectedpayoffwhenheusesmixedstrategy

andallotherplayersplayasin

Remark:

ForthedefinitionofamixedstrategypayoffwehavetoassumethattheutilityfunctionfulfillstheVNMaxioms.Mixedstrategiesinducelotteriesovertheoutcomes(strategyprofiles)andtheexpectedutilityofalotteryallowsaconsistentrankingonlyifthepreferencerelationsatisfiestheseaxioms.

DefinitionAmixedstrategyNEofGisamixedprofile

suchthat

foralliandall

ThedefinitionofMSNEmakesitcumbersometocheckthatamixedprofileisaNE.Thenextresultshowsthatitissufficienttocheckagainstpurestrategyalternatives.

Proposition:

isaNashequilibriumifandonlyif

foralliand

Example:

Thestrategyprofile

isaNEofMatchingPennies.

Becauseofsymmetryisitsufficienttocheckthatplayer1wouldnotdeviate.Ifheplayshismixedstrategyhegetsexpectedpayoff0.Playinghistwopurestrategiesgiveshimpayoff0aswell.Therefore,thereisnoincentivetodeviate.

9.3完全信息动态博弈

9.3.1Theextensiveformofagame

Theextensiveformofagameisacompletedescriptionof

1.Thesetofplayers.

2.Whomoveswhenandwhattheirchoicesare.

3.Theplayers'

payoffsasafunctionofthechoicesthataremade.

4.Whatplayersknowwhentheymove.

Example:

ModelofEntry

Currentlyfirm1isanincumbentmonopolist.Asecondfirm2hastheopportunitytoenter.Afterfirm2makesthedecisiontoenter,firm1willhavethechancetochooseapricingstrategy.Itcanchooseeithertofighttheentrantortoaccommodateitwithhigherprices.

ExampleII:

StackelbergModel

Supposefirm1developsanewtechnologybeforefirm2andasaresulthastheopportunitytobuildafactoryandcommittoanoutputlevelq1beforefirm2starts.Firm2thenobservesfirm1beforepickingitsoutputlevelq2.Forconcretenesssuppose

andmarketdemandis

.Themarginalcostofproductionis0.

9.3.2DefinitionofanExtensiveFormGame

Formallyafiniteextensiveformgameconsistsof

1.Afinitesetofplayers.

2.AfinitesetTofnodeswhichformatreealongwithfunctionsgivingforeachnon-terminalnode

(Zisthesetofterminalnodes)

theplayeri(t)whomoves

thesetofpossibleactionsA(t)

thesuccessornoderesultingfromeachpossibleactionN(t;

a)

3.Payofffunctions

givingtheplayerspayoffsasafunctionoftheterminalnodereached(theterminalnodesaretheoutcomesofthegame).

4.Aninformationpartition:

foreachnodet,h(t)isthesetofnodeswhicharepossiblegivenwhatplayeri(x)knows.Thispartitionmustsatisfy

Wesometimeswritei(h)andA(h)si

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