英语语言学16章 笔记.docx
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英语语言学16章笔记
Chapter1Introduction
1.1Whystudylanguage?
▪Atoolforcommunication
▪Anintegralpartofourlifeandhumanity
▪Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.
1.2Whatislanguage?
▪Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
System:
Elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules.Theycannotbearrangedatwill.
e.g.Hethetablecleaned(×);bkli(×).
Arbitrary----thereisnointrinsic(logic)connectionbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.
Vocal--------theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemsare.
Writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.
Peoplewithlittleornoliteracycanalsobecompetentlanguageusers.
Symbols----wordsarejustthesymbolsassociatedwithobjects,actions,andideasbyconvention.
Communication-----Aprocessinwhichinformationistransmittedfromasource(senderorspeaker)toagoal(receiverorlistener).
Human----languageishuman-specific.Humanbeingshavedifferentkindsofbrainsandvocalcapacity.“LanguageAcquisitionDevice”(LAD)
1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage
▪CharlesHockett(1958)Americanlinguist
ØArbitrariness
ØDuality
ØCreativity
ØDisplacement
▪arbitrariness----theformoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.
ØE.g.“house”部屋(Japanese)
Ø
Ø房子(Chinese)
▪Duality----languageissimultaneouslyorganizedattwolevelsorlayers,namely,thelevelofsoundsandthatofmeaning.
▪thehigherlevel----wordswhicharemeaningful
▪Thelowerorthebasiclevel----soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.
▪Creativity----languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(novelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.)
▪Non-humansignals,ontheotherhand,appearstohavelittleflexibility.
E.g.:
anexperimentofbeecommunication:
▪Displacement----humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.
1.4Originoflanguage
▪GrantedbyGod
▪Createdbyhumanbeingsintheirsociallife
▪Thewholeearthhadonelanguageandwasofonespeech.Astheymigratedfromtheeast,ithappenedthattheyfoundaplaininthelandofShinar,andtheysettledthere.Theysaidonetoanother,'Come,let'smakebricks,andbakethemthoroughly.'(Genesis11:
1-3)
1.5Functionsoflanguage
▪Informative
▪Interpersonalfunction
▪Performative
▪Emotivefunction
▪Phaticcommunion
▪Recreationalfunction
▪Metalingualfunction
1.6Whatislinguistics?
1.1.1Definition
Linguisticsisgenerally
Definedasthescientific
Studyoflanguage.
Linguisticsstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanysociety,butthelanguageofallhumansociety,languageingeneral.
1.7Mainbranchesoflinguistics
▪Phonetics
▪Phonology
▪Morphology
▪Syntax
▪Semantics
▪Pragmatics
1.8Macrolinguistics
▪Psycholinguistics
▪Sociolinguistics
▪Anthropologicallinguistics
▪Computationallinguistics
1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics
▪Descriptivevs.prescriptive
▪Synchronicvs.diachronic
▪Langue&parole
▪Competence&performance
▪Traditionallinguistics&modernlinguistics
Descriptivevs.prescriptive
▪Theyrepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.
▪Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.
Synchronicvs.diachronic
▪Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy。
▪Thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.
▪Adiachronicstudyisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.
Langue&parole
▪ThedistinctionwasmadebytheSwisslinguistSaussureintheearly20thcentury.
▪Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.
▪Whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.
Competence&performance
▪ThedistinctionisdiscussedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.
▪Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.
▪Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.
Traditionallinguistics&modernlinguistics
▪ModernlinguisticsstartedwiththepublicationofF.deSaussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”intheearly20thcentury.SoSaussureisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”.
▪Thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguagebeforethatisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Theydifferinseveralbasicways.
DifferencesbetweenModernlinguisticsandTraditionallinguistics
▪Firstly,modernlinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof“correctness”.
▪Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.
▪Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Tomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwouldbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind
Homework
ØDefinethefollowingterms:
language;arbitrariness;
creativity;duality;
displacement;linguistics;
ØDistinguishtheseterms:
Descriptivevs.prescriptive
Synchronicvs.diachronic
Langue&parole
Competence&performance
Chapter2SpeechSounds
Thephonicmediumoflanguage
Soundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage.
1.Phonetics
1.1Speechproductionandperception
vPhoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview:
Articulatoryphonetics
Acousticphonetics
Auditoryphonetics
Articulatoryphonetics----thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds
Fromthespeaker’spointofview:
Howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds,whichresultsinarticulatoryphonetics.
Acousticphonetics----thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech
Fromthewaysoundstravel:
howsoundstravelbylookingatthesoundsaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother,whichresultsinacousticphonetics.
Auditoryphonetics----thestudyoftheperceptionofspeechsounds
Fromthehearer’spointofview:
Howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer,whichresultsinauditoryphonetics.
1.2Speechorgans(vocalorgans)
vThepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.
vThethreecavitiesofthevocaltract:
thepharynx(pharyngealcavity),
themouth(oralcavity),
thenose(nasalcavity).
vTheair-streamcomingfromthelungsismodifiedinvariouswaysinthesecavities,resultingintheproductionofvarioussounds.
Thepharyngealcavity
vLarynx:
atthetopofthetrachea,thefrontofwhichistheAdam’sapple.Thisisthefirstplacewheresoundmodificationmightoccur.
vVocalfolds(vocalcords):
Vocalcordsaretwomembranes,thepositionsofwhichgivesdifferentsounds.
v●Whenthevocalcordsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.e.g.[p,s,t]
v●Whentheyareclosetogether,theairstreamscausesthemtovibrateandproducesvoicedsounds.e.g.[b,z,d]
v●Whentheyaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem,thenproducetheglottalstop[?
]
Theoralcavity
vTheoralcavityprovidesthegreatestsourceofmodification.
vTongue:
themostflexible
vUvula,theteethandthelips
vHardpalate,softpalate(velum)
vAlveolarridge:
therough,bonyridgeimmediatelybehindtheupperteeth
vVariousobstructionscreatedwithintheoralcavityleadtotheproductionofvarioussounder[p][b];[s][z];[k][g]
Thenasalcavity
vThenasalcavityisconnectedtotheoralcavityatthebackofthemouth.Thesoftpartoftheroofofthemouth;thevelum(softpalate)canbedrawbacktoclosethepassagesothattheaircanonlygothroughthemouthandproducevowelsandmostconsonants.Thepassagecanalsobeleftopentoallowairtoexitthroughthenoseandproducenasalconsonants[m][n][g]
1.3phonetictranscriptions
vAmethodofwritingdownspeechsoundsinasystematicandconsistentway.
1.3.1IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet)
IPA:
theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisdevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1888onthebasisofthephoneticalphabetproposedatthetime.Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.
TheDanishgrammarianJespersenfirstproposedtheideain1886.
ThefirstversionofIPAwaspublishedinAugust1888.
Thelatestversionwasdevisedin1993andcorrect