英语语言学16章 笔记.docx

英语语言学16章 笔记.docx

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英语语言学16章笔记

Chapter1Introduction

1.1Whystudylanguage?

▪Atoolforcommunication

▪Anintegralpartofourlifeandhumanity

▪Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.

1.2Whatislanguage?

▪Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

System:

Elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules.Theycannotbearrangedatwill.

e.g.Hethetablecleaned（×）;bkli（×）.

Arbitrary----thereisnointrinsic（logic）connectionbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.

Vocal--------theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemsare.

Writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.

Peoplewithlittleornoliteracycanalsobecompetentlanguageusers.

Symbols----wordsarejustthesymbolsassociatedwithobjects,actions,andideasbyconvention.

Communication-----Aprocessinwhichinformationistransmittedfromasource（senderorspeaker）toagoal（receiverorlistener）.

Human----languageishuman-specific.Humanbeingshavedifferentkindsofbrainsandvocalcapacity.“LanguageAcquisitionDevice”（LAD）

1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage

▪CharlesHockett（1958）Americanlinguist

ØArbitrariness

ØDuality

ØCreativity

ØDisplacement

▪arbitrariness----theformoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.

ØE.g.“house”部屋（Japanese）

Ø

Ø房子（Chinese）

▪Duality----languageissimultaneouslyorganizedattwolevelsorlayers,namely,thelevelofsoundsandthatofmeaning.

▪thehigherlevel----wordswhicharemeaningful

▪Thelowerorthebasiclevel----soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.

▪Creativity----languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.（novelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.）

▪Non-humansignals,ontheotherhand,appearstohavelittleflexibility.

E.g.:

anexperimentofbeecommunication:

▪Displacement----humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.

1.4Originoflanguage

▪GrantedbyGod

▪Createdbyhumanbeingsintheirsociallife

▪Thewholeearthhadonelanguageandwasofonespeech.Astheymigratedfromtheeast,ithappenedthattheyfoundaplaininthelandofShinar,andtheysettledthere.Theysaidonetoanother,'Come,let'smakebricks,andbakethemthoroughly.'（Genesis11:

1-3）

1.5Functionsoflanguage

▪Informative

▪Interpersonalfunction

▪Performative

▪Emotivefunction

▪Phaticcommunion

▪Recreationalfunction

▪Metalingualfunction

1.6Whatislinguistics?

1.1.1Definition

Linguisticsisgenerally

Definedasthescientific

Studyoflanguage.

Linguisticsstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanysociety,butthelanguageofallhumansociety,languageingeneral.

1.7Mainbranchesoflinguistics

▪Phonetics

▪Phonology

▪Morphology

▪Syntax

▪Semantics

▪Pragmatics

1.8Macrolinguistics

▪Psycholinguistics

▪Sociolinguistics

▪Anthropologicallinguistics

▪Computationallinguistics

1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

▪Descriptivevs.prescriptive

▪Synchronicvs.diachronic

▪Langue&parole

▪Competence&performance

▪Traditionallinguistics&modernlinguistics

Descriptivevs.prescriptive

▪Theyrepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.

▪Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.

Synchronicvs.diachronic

▪Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy。

▪Thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.

▪Adiachronicstudyisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.

Langue&parole

▪ThedistinctionwasmadebytheSwisslinguistSaussureintheearly20thcentury.

▪Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.

▪Whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competence&performance

▪ThedistinctionisdiscussedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.

▪Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.

▪Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

Traditionallinguistics&modernlinguistics

▪ModernlinguisticsstartedwiththepublicationofF.deSaussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”intheearly20thcentury.SoSaussureisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”.

▪Thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguagebeforethatisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Theydifferinseveralbasicways.

DifferencesbetweenModernlinguisticsandTraditionallinguistics

▪Firstly,modernlinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof“correctness”.

▪Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.

▪Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Tomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwouldbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind

Homework

ØDefinethefollowingterms:

language;arbitrariness;

creativity;duality;

displacement;linguistics;

ØDistinguishtheseterms:

Descriptivevs.prescriptive

Synchronicvs.diachronic

Langue&parole

Competence&performance

Chapter2SpeechSounds

Thephonicmediumoflanguage

Soundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage.

1.Phonetics

1.1Speechproductionandperception

vPhoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview:

™Articulatoryphonetics

™Acousticphonetics

™Auditoryphonetics

Articulatoryphonetics----thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds

Fromthespeaker’spointofview:

Howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds,whichresultsinarticulatoryphonetics.

Acousticphonetics----thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech

Fromthewaysoundstravel:

howsoundstravelbylookingatthesoundsaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother,whichresultsinacousticphonetics.

Auditoryphonetics----thestudyoftheperceptionofspeechsounds

Fromthehearer’spointofview:

Howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer,whichresultsinauditoryphonetics.

1.2Speechorgans（vocalorgans）

vThepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.

vThethreecavitiesofthevocaltract:

™thepharynx（pharyngealcavity）,

™themouth（oralcavity）,

™thenose（nasalcavity）.

vTheair-streamcomingfromthelungsismodifiedinvariouswaysinthesecavities,resultingintheproductionofvarioussounds.

Thepharyngealcavity

vLarynx:

atthetopofthetrachea,thefrontofwhichistheAdam’sapple.Thisisthefirstplacewheresoundmodificationmightoccur.

vVocalfolds（vocalcords）:

Vocalcordsaretwomembranes,thepositionsofwhichgivesdifferentsounds.

v●Whenthevocalcordsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.e.g.[p,s,t]

v●Whentheyareclosetogether,theairstreamscausesthemtovibrateandproducesvoicedsounds.e.g.[b,z,d]

v●Whentheyaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem,thenproducetheglottalstop[?

]

Theoralcavity

vTheoralcavityprovidesthegreatestsourceofmodification.

vTongue:

themostflexible

vUvula,theteethandthelips

vHardpalate,softpalate（velum）

vAlveolarridge:

therough,bonyridgeimmediatelybehindtheupperteeth

vVariousobstructionscreatedwithintheoralcavityleadtotheproductionofvarioussounder[p][b];[s][z];[k][g]

Thenasalcavity

vThenasalcavityisconnectedtotheoralcavityatthebackofthemouth.Thesoftpartoftheroofofthemouth;thevelum（softpalate）canbedrawbacktoclosethepassagesothattheaircanonlygothroughthemouthandproducevowelsandmostconsonants.Thepassagecanalsobeleftopentoallowairtoexitthroughthenoseandproducenasalconsonants[m][n][g]

1.3phonetictranscriptions

vAmethodofwritingdownspeechsoundsinasystematicandconsistentway.

1.3.1IPA（InternationalPhoneticAlphabet）

IPA:

theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisdevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1888onthebasisofthephoneticalphabetproposedatthetime.Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.

TheDanishgrammarianJespersenfirstproposedtheideain1886.

ThefirstversionofIPAwaspublishedinAugust1888.

Thelatestversionwasdevisedin1993andcorrect