自学考试英美国家概况6995第五章.docx

自学考试英美国家概况6995第五章.docx

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自学考试英美国家概况6995第五章

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Chapteit'

5

TheRisean

Fullof:

tIbLe.

.

BritishVin

ire（1688-1990）

1.WhigsandTories

ThesetwopartynamesoriginatedwiththeGloriousRevolution

（1688）

•Bothwereknownbynicknames:

Whigswasaderogatory

nameforcattledrivers,ToriesanIrishwordmeaningthugs.

Looselyspeaking,theWhigswerethosewhoopposedabsolute

monarchyandsupportedtherighttoreligiousfreedomforNoncon-

formists.FirstEarlofShaftsbury（1621-83）wasconsideredtobe

thefirstleaderoftheWhigParty.TheTorieswerethosewhosup-

portedhereditarymonarchyandwerereluctanttoremovekings.

TheWhigsweretoformacoalitionwithdissidentToniesinthemid-

19thcenturyandbecometheLiberalParty.TheTorieswerethe

forerunnersoftheConservativeParty,

whichstillbearsthe'nick-

nametoday.

.

Bythebeginningofthe19thcenturytheWhigshadnoparticular

programmeandwerenotevenaunitedpartyinthemodemsense.

Theydidnotyethaveanorganizedpartystructure,,withoutparty

fundsforexample.Whigsstoodfor

（1）areductioninCrownpa-

-

tronage（thepowertoappointpeopletoimportantpositionsandof-

fices）

9

（2）sympathytowardsNonconformists（Methodistsand

otherProtestantsectswhohadbrokenawayfromtheChurchof

67

England）

9

and（3）

carefortheinterestsofmerchants

and

bankers.

MostWhigswereinfavouralsoofsomekindofParlia-

.

mentaryreform,butcouldnotagreehowfarthisreformshouldgo.

（e.g.Shouldthemerchantsnowbeallowedtovote,orshouldall

mengetthevote?

）

Toriesweretraditionalists-whowantedtopreservethepowersof

themonarchyandtheChurchofEngland.TheydislikedtheNon-

conformistsandconsideredthemathreattoChurchofEngland'sin-

fluenceonthepeople;theywantedstrictmaintenanceoflawand

orderandwereafraidofmobriot,

•andtheydidnotalwaysagreeto

allreforms.Theymightagreeto.somehumanitarianreforms,,

but

werecertainlyagainstParliamentaryreforms.

Therewasanotherbrandofopinion,butwithmuchsmallersup-

portintheParliament.TheyweretheRadicalswhowantedfunda-

mentalreformstogettotherootofproblems.Onlyahandfulof

ParliamentarymemberswereRadicals,butinthelate18thandear-

ly19thcenturiesRadicalswereactiveinParliamentspreadingradical

ideas.TheironecommonaimwasthoroughreformoftheParlia-

mentarysystem.TheyweregreatlyinfluencedbyJeremy

if.

til

Bentham'sidealsknownasUtilitarianism-Hesuggestedthat

&I

government'sfunctionshouldbetoachievethegreatesthappiness

119

ofthegreatestnumber-Thisshouldbedoneintwowaysaccord-

ingtohim:

（1）govermentandadministrationshouldbemadea8

efficientaspossible.Anythingwhichwasnotefficientanduseful

（e.g.educationalsystem,prisonsystem,Parliament）shouldbe

modemized;and

（2）governmentshouldinterfereaslittleaspossi-

blewithlivesofthepeopleasindividuals.Theyadvocatedlai&w2

faire,aradicalideaoffreetrade,becausetheybelievedthatthe

importandexportdutiesinterferedwiththenaturalflowoftrade.

68

0

Agricultural

Changes

in

the

Late

18th

Century

.

tury.Villageandagriculturewerethebackboneofthenation.

FarmingwasanimportantoccupationinEnglandinthe18thcen-

Changesinfarmingmethodsthereforewouldaffectlivesofmillions.

"

Agriculturalchangesinthelate18thandearly19thcenturieswere

indeedsogreatthattheymeritthetermrevolution''.Traditional

farminginvolvedtheopenfieldvillage,asystemthatdatedbackto

the5thcentury.Villagesweresurroundedby3greathedgeless

fieldswhichcentredallthearableland.Thesefieldsweredivided

intostripssharedoutamongthevillagers.Eachfamily'slandwas

scatteredabout,sogoodlandwasfairlydistributed.

Muchwas

doneonacommunitybasis.Onegreatfieldleft''fallow

$9

eachyear

（i

•e.

unused/unsownafterploughing）sothatitssoilrecoveredits

Thismeantonly2/3ofthe

-

richnessaftertwoyears'cultivation.

landwascultivatedatanytime.Inadditiontothefieldstherewere

commonsandwastelandsusedbyallvillagerstograzelivestock.

Thissystemwasanidealbasisforthesimplecommunitylifeofthe

countrysideandsubsistencefarmingbeforethemodernindustrial

age.Therewereofcoursedrawbacks:

（1）itwastedlandbecause

offallowfieldsandlandforpaths;

（2）itwaswastefuloflabour

andtime;（3）livestockfarmingwasdifficultanddiseasesspread

quicklyoncommons.Winterfeedwasrarelyenough,soanimals

wereusuallykilledinaufuninandtheirmeatwassalted,

•and（4）

theopenfieldsystemwasabarrier-toexperiments.

Inthemid-18thcenturythepopulationinEnglandincreased

69

-

rapidly,andmostofthisincreasewasinthetowns,dependingon

thecountryside,forfood.Greaterproductivitymeanthandsome

profits,solandownerswantedtoreplacethesynallfarmscultivated

46

ontheopen-field"systbmbylarger,economicallymoreefficient

"

farmswithhedge-dividedfields.Duringthelate18thandearly

19thcenturiestheopen-field''systemendedwhentheEnclosure

Actsenabledwealthierlandownerstoseizeanylandtowhichtenants

couldprovenolegaltitleandtodivideitintoenclosedfields.Asys-

temofcroprotationwasintroduced.Thismeantlandcouldbefully

usedwhilethecuffivationoffoddercropsenabledlivestocktobe

.

keptthroughthewintermonths.Artificialfertilizerandnewagn-

culturalmachinery,suchastheseeddrillinventedbyJethroTull

（1674-1741）,also'madearablefarmingmoreefficientandmore

profitable.The18thcenturyalsosawselectivebreedingofcattle,

sheepandhorsesbyRobertBakewell（1725-95）.Animalsby1800

were2to3timesheavierthaneverbefore.Theideaofencouraging

tenantstointroducechangeswasassociatedwithThomasCoke

（1754-1842）ofNorfolkinSouthernEnglandandevenGeorgeIR

wassoenthusiasticaboutchangesatWindsorthathegotthenick-

-

Enclosurebecamemorefrequentafter1740andclimaxedduring

theturnofthecenturywhenwaragainstFrancemeanthighfood

priceswarwasanincentivetolandlordstoencloseland.

Agriculturalenclosurehadgoodaswellasbadresults:

（1）

Farmsbecame-biggerandbiggerunitsasthegreatboughtupthe

（2）morevegetables,moremilkandmoredairyproduce

small;

wereconsumed,anddietbecamemorevaried;（3）enclosurewasa

disasterforthetenantsevictedfromtheirlandsbytheenclosures.

Thesepeasantfarmerswereforcedtolookforworkintowns,

70

Riotseruptedin

whichrapidlybecamehopelesslyovercrowded.

manyareasbuttheycouldnotpreventthemarchofprogress.In

IrelandandtheScottishHighlands-landenclosureledtomassemi-

gration,particularlytotheNewWorld;and（4）anewclasshos-

tilitywasintroducedintoruralrelationships.-Concentrationofland

infewerhandsincreasedthepriceoflandanddashedthelabourers'

.

.

aninmlsaddedinsulttoinjury,andmeantmanyhadtoleavethe

hopesofeverowninghisownland.Lossofthecommonlandforhis

landtosurvive.Othersbecamewagelabourers,earningrates

whichwereverylowinspiteofagriculture'snewprosperity.

M-TheIndustrialRevolution（1780-1&*30）

TheIndustrialRevolutionreferstothemechanizationofindustry

.

andtheconsequentchangesinsocialandeconomicorganizationin

Britaininthelate18thandearly19thcenturies.Britainwasthe

firstcountryto.industrializebecauseofthefollowingfactors:

.

（1）Britainwas,wellplacedgeographicallytoparticipateinEu-

ropeanandworldtrade;

.

（2）Britainhadapeacefulsociety,

which,

afterthe17thcen-

tury,wasincreasinglyinterestedinoverseastradeandcolonies.In-

I

ternationaltradebroughtweAthtomerchantsandcitybankers.

Theyandthosewhohad'-donewelloutofnewfarming.methodspro-

I

.

videdcapitalinlargequantitiesforindustrialization.

I

（3）ThelimitedmonarchywhichresultedfromtheGlorious

Revolutionof1688ensuredthatthepowerfuleconomicinterestsin

thecommunitycouldexerttheirinfluenceoverGovernmentpolicy.

（4）Itwasacountryinwhichthemaintownswerenevertoo

farfromseaports,

orfromrivers,

whichcoulddistributetheir

71

products.

（5）Britainhadmanyrivers,

whichwereusefulfortransport

butalsoforwaterandsteampower.Britainalsohadusefulmineral

resources.

（6）Britishengineershadsoundtrainingascraftsmen.

（7）Theinventorswererespected.

Theysolvedpracticalprob-

lems.

（8）Probablylaissezfaireand

94

Protestantworkethic

11P

helped.

（9）England,Scotland,andWalesformedacustomsunionaf~

ter1707andthisincludedIrelandafter1807.Sothenationalmar-

ketwasnothinderedbyinternalcustomsbarriers.

（10）Theenclosuresandotherimprovementsinagriculture

madetheircontributionsbyprovidingfoodfortherisingpopulation,

labourforthefactories,andsomeoftherawmaterialsneededby

industry.

.

methodswasatitsheight,similarthingstookplaceinmanufac-

Whilethemovementtoenclosethelandandusenewagricultural

ture.Beforethe18thcenturymostindustriesweredoneinthe

homeinvillagesandsmalltowns,usingverysimplehandoperated

ult-

machines.Nownewtechniquesandwaterpoweredmachines

edinorganizationofindustriesonalargescale.Atthistimepopula-

tionbecameincreasinglyconcentratedintowns,especiallyinMid-

lands,NorthofEngland,SouthernWalesandCentralScotland-

Changes-occurredearliestandquickestintextiles,especiidlycotton

andsilkandinothertradeslikehardware,potteryandchemicals.

Productionofwoolenclothwastraditionalandsomeof