法律英语名词解释考研复试口语.docx
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法律英语名词解释考研复试口语
Commonlaw
Commonlawreferstolawandthecorrespondinglegalsystemdevelopedthroughdecisionsofcourtsandsimilartribunals(calledcaselaw),ratherthanthroughlegislativestatutesorexecutiveaction.
Commonlawislawcreatedandrefinedbyjudges:
adecisioninacurrentlypendinglegalcasedependsondecisionsinpreviouscasesandaffectsthelawtobeappliedinfuturecases.Whenthereisnoauthoritativestatementofthelaw,judgeshavetheauthorityanddutytomakelawbycreatingprecedent.
Thebodyofprecedentiscalled"commonlaw"anditbindsfuturedecisions.Infuturecases,whenpartiesdisagreeonwhatthelawis,anidealizedcommonlawcourtlookstopastprecedentialdecisionsofrelevantcourts.Ifasimilardisputehasbeenresolvedinthepast,thecourtisboundtofollowthereasoningusedinthepriordecision(thisprincipleisknownasstaredecisis).If,however,thecourtfindsthatthecurrentdisputeisfundamentallydistinctfromallpreviouscases,itwilldecideasa"matteroffirstimpression."Thereafter,thenewdecisionbecomesprecedent,andwillbindfuturecourtsundertheprincipleofstaredecisis.
Inpractice,commonlawsystemsareconsiderablymorecomplicatedthantheidealizedsystemdescribedabove.Thedecisionsofacourtarebindingonlyinaparticularjurisdiction,andevenwithinagivenjurisdiction,somecourtshavemorepowerthanothers.Forexample,inmostjurisdictions,decisionsbyappellatecourtsarebindingonlowercourtsinthesamejurisdictionandonfuturedecisionsofthesameappellatecourt,butdecisionsofnon-appellatecourtsareonlynon-bindingpersuasiveauthority.Interactionsbetweencommonlaw,constitutionallaw,statutorylawandregulatorylawalsogiverisetoconsiderablecomplexity.Howeverstaredecisis,theprinciplethatsimilarcasesshouldbedecidedaccordingtoconsistentprincipledrulessothattheywillreachsimilarresults,liesattheheartofallcommonlawsystems.
Commonlawlegalsystemsareinwidespreaduse,particularlyinthosenationswhichtracetheirlegalheritagetoBritain,includingtheUnitedKingdom,mostoftheUnitedStates,andotherformercoloniesoftheBritishEmpiresuchasIndia,[2]Canada,NewZealand,AustraliaandHongKong.[3]
Injunction
Aninjunctionisanequitableremedyintheformofacourtorder,wherebyapartyisrequiredtodo,ortorefrainfromdoing,certainacts.Thepartythatfailstoadheretotheinjunctionfacescivilorcriminalpenaltiesandmayhavetopaydamagesoracceptsanctionsforfailingtofollowthecourt'sorder.Insomecases,breachesofinjunctionsareconsideredseriouscriminaloffencesthatmeritarrestandpossibleprisonsentences.
Misrepresentation
Misrepresentationisacontractlawconcept.Itmeansafalsestatementoffactmadebyonepartytoanotherparty,whichhastheeffectofinducingthatpartyintothecontract.Forexample,undercertaincircumstances,falsestatementsorpromisesmadebyasellerofgoodsregardingthequalityornatureoftheproductthatthesellerhasmayconstitutemisrepresentation.Afindingofmisrepresentationallowsforaremedyofrescissionandsometimesdamagesdependingonthetypeofmisrepresentation.
Estoppel
Estoppelisalegaldoctrineatcommonlaw,whereapartyisbarredfromclaimingordenyinganargumentonanequitableground.Estoppelcomplementstherequirementofconsiderationincontractlaw.Ingeneral,estoppelprotectsanaggrievedparty,ifthecounter-partyinducedanexpectationfromtheaggrievedparty,andtheaggrievedpartyreasonablyreliedontheexpectationandwouldsufferdetrimentiftheexpectationisnotmet.
Also,unconscionabilitybyabreachingpartyisalsosufficienttoestopthebreachingparty.
Estoppelisadefensethatpreventsarepresentorfromenforcinglegalrights,orfromrelyingonasetoffactsthatwouldgiverisetoenforceablerights(e.g.wordssaidoractionsperformed),generallyonlyifthatenforcementorreliancewouldbeunfairtotherepresentee.Becauseitseffectistodefeatgenerallyenforceablelegalrights,thescopeoftheremedyisoftenlimited.Note,however,thatproprietaryestoppel(applicableinEnglishlandlaw)canbebothaswordandashieldandthescopeofitsremedyiswide.
Foranexampleofestoppel,considerthecaseofadebtorandacreditor.Thecreditormightunofficiallyinformthedebtorthatthecreditorforgivesthedebt.Evenifsuchforgivenessisnotformallydocumented,thecreditormaybeestoppedfromchangingitsmindandseekingtocollectthedebt,becausethatchangewouldbeunfair.Inthesameway,alandlordmightinformatenantthatrenthasbeenreduced,forexample,iftherewasconstructionoralapseinutilityservices.Ifthetenantreliesonthisnotice,thelandlordcouldbeestoppedfromcollectingthefullrent.
Estoppeliscloselyrelatedtothedoctrinesofwaiver,variation,andelectionandisappliedinmanyareasoflaw,includinginsurance,banking,employment,internationaltrade,etc.InEnglishlaw,theconceptoflegitimateexpectationintherealmofadministrativelawandjudicialreviewisestoppel'scounterpartinpubliclaw,althoughsubtlebutimportantdifferencesexist.
ThistermappearstocomefromtheFrenchestoupail(oravariation),whichmeant"stopperplug",referringtoplacingahaltontheimbalanceofthesituation.Thetermisrelatedtotheverb"estop"whichcomesfromtheOldFrenchtermestopper,meaning"stopup,impede".NotethesimilaritybetweentheEnglishterms"estop"and"stop".
Caselaw
Caselaw(alsoknownasdecisionallaworjudicialprecedent)isthegeneraltermfortheprinciplesandrulesoflawsetforthinjudicialopinionsfromcourtsoflaw.[1]Caselawincorporatescourts'decisionsfromindividualcasesandencompassescourts'interpretationsofstatutes,constitutionalprovisions,administrativeregulationsand,insomecases,laworiginatingsolelyfromthecourts.Caselawisoftenpublishedinprintlawreportsorreporters(andincreasinglyoncourtwebsites)toestablishprecedent-rulestoapplyinfuturecourtdecisionsdealingwithsimilarsituations.
Forcountrieswithacommonlawlegalsystem,suchasintheUnitedKingdom,UnitedStates,andmostoftheCommonwealthofNations,caselawisamajorsourceoflaw.Ingeneral,courtsincommonlawcountriestreatthedecisionsofhigherappellatecourtsasnormative-layingdownrulesthatshould,orinsomecasesmust,beusedtodecidesimilarlegaldisputes(called"bindingprecedent").IncountrieswithlegalsystemsthatfollowthecivillawtraditionderivedfromRomanlaw,however,thecourtsarenotstrictlyboundbyrulesandprinciplesfromcaselaw.
Statute
Statutelawislawmadebyparliamentseg.thecrimesact1900madebynswparliament
Astatuteisaformalwrittenenactmentofalegislativeauthoritythatgovernsacountry,state,city,orcounty.[1]Typically,statutescommandorprohibitsomething,ordeclarepolicy.ThewordisoftenusedtodistinguishlawmadebylegislativebodiesfromthejudicialdecisionsofthecommonlawandtheregulationsissuedbyGovernmentagencies.[1]Statutesaresometimesreferredtoaslegislationor"blackletterlaw".Asasourceoflaw,statutesareconsideredprimaryauthority(asopposedtosecondaryauthority).
Beforeastatutebecomeslawinsomecountries,itmustbeagreeduponbythehighestexecutiveinthegovernment,andfinallypublishedaspartofacode.Inmanycountries,statutesareorganizedintopicalarrangements(or"codified")withinpublicationscalledcodes,suchastheUnitedStatesCode.IntheUnitedStates,statutorylawisdistinguishedfromandsubordinatetoconstitutionallaw.
Agency(law)
Agencyisanareaofcommerciallawdealingwithacontractualorquasi-contractualtripartite,ornon-contractualsetofrelationshipswhenanagentisauthorizedtoactonbehalfofanother(calledthePrincipal)tocreatealegalrelationshipwithaThirdParty.[1]Succinctly,itmaybereferredtoastherelationshipbetweenaprincipalandanagentwherebytheprincipal,expresslyorimpliedly,authorizestheagenttoworkunderhiscontrolandonhisbehalf.Theagentis,thus,requiredtonegotiateonbehalfoftheprincipalorbringhimandthirdpartiesintocontractualrelationship.Thisbranchoflawseparatesandregulatestherelationshipsbetween:
∙AgentsandPrincipals;
∙AgentsandtheThirdPartieswithwhomtheydealontheirPrincipals'behalf;and
∙PrincipalsandtheThirdPartieswhentheAgentspurporttodealontheirbehalf.
ThecommonlawprincipleinoperationisusuallyrepresentedintheLatinphrase,quifacitperalium,facitperse,i.e.theonewhoactsthroughanother,actsinhisorherowninterestsanditisaparallelconcepttovicariousliabilityandstrictliabilityinwhichonepersonisheldliableinCriminallaworTortfortheactsoromissionsofanother.
Goodfaith
Goodfaith,orinLatinbonafides(bonafidemeans"ingoodfaith"),isthementalandmoralstateofhonesty,convictionastothetruthorfalsehoodofapropositionorbodyofopinion,orastotherectitudeordepravityofalineofconduct.Thisconceptisimportantinlaw,especiallyequitablematters.[1]
IncontemporaryEnglish,"bonafides"issometimesusedasasynonymforcredentials,background,ordocumentationofaperson'sidentity."Showmeyourbonafides"canmean:
WhyshouldItrustyou(yourgoodfaithinthismatter)?
Tellmewhoyouare.Inthissense,thephraseissometimesusedinjobadvertisements,andshouldnotbeconfusedwiththebonafideoccupationalqualificationsortheemployer'sgoodfaitheffort,asdescribedbelow.[2]
Commissioner
Commissionerisinprincipaltheti