academic writing from language and learning online.docx

academic writing from language and learning online.docx

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academicwritingfromlanguageandlearningonline

LanguageandLearningOnline

http:

//www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/academic/2.xml,2010-9-4

Whatisacademicwriting?

Differenttraditions,conventionsandwaysofthinkinghavedevelopedindifferentareasofknowledgeovertheyears,soyouwillfindthatacademicwritingdiffersfromdisciplinetodiscipline.Researchers,whentheypublishtheirwork,arealwaysputtingforwardanargumentofsomekind,buthowmuchthisisobvious,howitisstructured,whatcountsasevidence,dependsonthedisciplineorfield:

whetheritishistory,zoology,physicsorwhatever.

Featuresofacademicwriting

1.Authorityandcredibility

2.styleandclarity

3.Structure

4.Ananalyticalapproach

5.Attributionofreferences

Authorityandcredibility

Youneedtodevelopyourowncredibleacademicvoice–asamarketer,asociologist,anarthistorian.Thesevoiceswillallsounddifferent,butallthetimeyouaredevelopingyourrepertoire.Thispracticewillbeofgreatvalueonceyouareagraduateandneedingtoproducedifferenttypesoftextswithdifferentconventionsfordifferentaudiencesinyourworkplace.

Inacademicwriting,yourideasandclaimsmustbesupportedbyevidenceandargument,andthesourcesofallideasanddatamustbeacknowledged.

Apointworthrememberingisthatyourlecturerwillaskthesametypesofquestionswhenreadingyouressaysasyouaskwhenreadingcritically.Thatis,theywillbelookingtoseehowwellsupportedyourideasorargumentsare,andwhetherthatsupportisvalid,relevant,sufficientandconvincing.

Theywillconsideranyclaimsyoumakeinthelightoftheevidenceandsupportyouprovide,andintermsoftherangeandcurrencyofsourcesyouhaveconsultedandreferredto.

Whichofthefollowingstatementsreadsasmostcredibleandconvincing?

Why?

1.Emotionalintelligenceisessentialinthepracticeofmanagement.

2.Inmyopinionemotionalintelligenceisessentialinthepracticeofmanagement.

3.AccordingtoSmith（1967）emotionalintelligenceisessentialinthepracticeofmanagement.

4.Jones（2004）arguesthatemotionalintelligenceisessentialinthepracticeofmanagement.Inhisviewsuccessfulmanagementpracticehingesoneffectivecommunicationbetweenpeople,andemotionalintelligencecancontributetothat.

Key:

1.Presentssomeone'sopinionasafactualstatement.

2.Presentsthesamestatementasyouropinion.

3.Simplystatestheviewofawriter（whomayhavedoneresearchonthetopicorwhomaybeexpressingjustapersonalopinion–wedon'treallyknowfrom'accordingto…'）

4.Presentstheviewassomethingwhichneedstobearguedfor,notsomethingwhichcanbeacceptedjustbecauseanauthorhassaidso.Itisfinetosay'accordingto',butitdoesnot（yet）reallyproveanythingorgiveanideaofwhatsenseyoumadeoftheinformation.

Supportingyourideas

Ratherthanexplicitlystatingyouropinion,inacademicwritingoftenyouropinioncanemergethroughyourchoiceofsourcesandhowyoupresentandexaminetheideasofothers.

Inacademicwriting,wetendtoavoidmakingcategoricaloremphaticstatements.Thisisinorderto:

Øacknowledgethattheremaybeexceptions

Øacknowledgethattheremaybearangeofpossiblecausesorexplanations

Øavoidmakingstatementsthatcannotadequatelybesupportedordefended.

Itisthereforeoftenwiseto:

Øqualifyyourideas

Øexplainyourideas

Øexploreyourideas.

Somewaysweavoidmakingemphaticstatements:

Øreferraltotendencies

Øusingqualifiersandquantifiers

Øacknowledgingexceptionsandlimitations.

Whenyouwriteormakeastatement,askyourself–Isthistrueinallcases?

Arethereexceptions?

Referringtotendencies

Theseexamplescontainusefulexpressionstorefertotendencies

Examples

Theevidencesuggeststhatdietwasanimportantfactorinthehealthoftherespondents.

Thisappearstoindicateatendencytoignorethewarningsigns.

Theresultswouldseemtosuggestthat…

Onepossibleexplanationforthefindingsisthat…

Thefindingssuggestthatagemaybeacontributingfactortotheobservedbehaviour.

Thefindingsindicateapossibleconnectionbetween…

Acknowledgingexceptionsandlimitations

Acknowledgingexceptionsinyourwriting（orlimitationsinaresearchstudy）reducesthelikelihoodofthereaderraisingthoseissuestocriticizeyourargumentordisputeyourfindings.Thereareavarietyofexpressionsyoucanusetoconveypreciseshadesofmeaninglikequalifiersandquantifiers.

Examples

Whilstthefindingsofthestudycouldbeappliedinmostinstances,thereweresomeimportantexceptions.Inparticular,itwasfoundthatpeoplewithfoodallergiesdidnotbenefitfromthechangestotheirdiet,andinfactinsomecasesexperiencednegativereactions.

Theargumentthatsportisgoodforyourhealthishardtodispute,withtheexceptionofinstanceswhenitleadstoseriousinjury.Forthemajorityofparticipantsadventuresportslikerock-climbingareverybeneficial;however,foranunluckyminoritysuchsportsresultinpermanentinjuryorevendeath.

Alimitationofthestudywastherelativelysmallsamplesize.Forthisreason,thesefindingscannotbegeneralizedtothebroadercommunitybasedonthisstudyalone.

Qualifiers

Examples

Generally,…

Inmostcases,…

Ingeneral…

Asageneralrule…

Generallyspeaking…

Onaverage,…

Styleandclarity

Whatdoesstyleandclarityinacademicwritinginvolve?

preciseuseofformallanguage

impersonalstyle

clearlyconstructedsentences

carewithabbreviationsandacronyms

logicalandsystematicdevelopmentofideas.

Formallanguage

Whenwritingorspeaking,wechoosethewordswhichseemmostsuitabletothepurposeandaudience.Inacademicwritingweuseformallanguage,avoidingtheuseofslangandcolloquiallanguage.

Trytolearnarangeofappropriatelanguageforexpressingyouropinionsandreferringtothoseofothers.

Someofthelanguageinthefollowingexamplesismoreappropriateforspeakingthanwriting.Identifywhichexpressionsaretooinformal.

1.WhenIlookatthesituationinemergencywards,withmanystaffleaving,it'shardnottoworryabouthowmanydoctorswillbeavailabletotreatpatientsinthefuture.

2.Ifweconsiderthesituationinemergencywards,withincreasinglylowstaffretentionrates,thereareconcernsaboutthecapacityofhospitalstomaintainadequatedoctortopatientratios.

3.It'ssoobviousthatpeopleweregivenjobsjustbecausetheyweremaleorfemale.Idon'tthinkthatisanacceptableapproachandisevenagainstthelaw.

4.Itappearsthatinanumberofinstancesjobswereassignedonthebasisofgender.Giventhecurrentanti-discriminationlaws,thisraisesseriousconcerns.

FormalIncorrect.Tryagain.

InformalCorrect!

FormalCorrect!

InformalIncorrect.Tryagain.

FormalIncorrect.Tryagain.

InformalCorrect!

FormalCorrect!

InformalIncorrect.Tryagain.

IncontrasttospokenEnglish,adistinctivefeatureofacademicwritingstyleisforwriterstochoosethemoreformalalternativewhenselectingaverb,noun,orotherpartofspeech.

Englishoftenhastwo（ormore）choicestoexpressanactionoroccurrence.Thechoiceisoftenbetween,ontheonehand,averbwhichispartofaphrase（oftenverb+preposition）,andaverbwhichisonewordonly.OfteninlecturesandineverydayspokenEnglish,theverb+prepositionisused（egspeakup,giveup,writedown）;however,forwrittenacademicstyle,thepreferredchoiceisasingleverbwhereverpossible.

Forexample

Informal:

Thesocialworkerlookedattheclient'shistorytofindoutwhichinterventionshadpreviouslybeenimplemented.

Academic:

Thesocialworkerexaminedtheclient'shistorytoestablishwhichinterventionshadpreviouslybeenimplemented.

Exercise1

Rewritethesentencesinamoreacademicstyleusingverbsfromthelistbelow.Notethatyoumayneedtochangetheverbtense.

investigate

assist

raise

discover

establish

increase

eliminate

1.Systemsanalystscanhelpoutmanagersinmanydifferentways.

2.Thisprogramwassetuptoimproveaccesstomedicalcare.

3.Medicalresearchexpenditurehasgoneuptonearly$350million.

4.Researchershavefoundoutthatthisdrughasserioussideeffects.

5.Exercisealonewillnotgetridofmedicalproblemsrelatedtobloodpressure.

6.Researchershavebeenlookingintothisproblemfor15yearsnow.

7.Thisissuewasbroughtupduringthecoroner'sinquest.

assist

goneup

increased

AdaptedfromSwales,J.andFeak,C.M.AcademicWritingforGraduateStudents,pp.5-9

Impersonalstyle

Comparethechangesinthesesentencesfrominformaltoacademicstyle.

Comparisonofsentencesfrominformalwritingtoacademicwriting

Informalwriting

Academicwriting

WhenIlookatthesituationinemergencywards,withmanystaffleaving,it'shardnottoworryabouthowmanydoctorswillbeavailabletotreatpatientsinthefuture.

Ifweconsiderthesituationinemergencywards,withincreasinglylowstaffretentionrates,thereareconcernsaboutthecapacityofhospitalstomaintainadequatedoctortopatientratios.

It'ssoobviousthatpeopleweregivenjobsjustbecausetheyweremaleorfemale.Idon'tthinkthatisanacceptableapproachandisevenagainstthelaw.

Itappearsthatinanumberofinstancesjobswereassignedonthebasisofgender.Giventhecurrentanti-discriminationlaws,thisraisesseriousconcerns.

Youwillnoticethat,ingeneral,inacademicwritingwe:

ØminimizetheuseofthepersonalIinthetext:

avoidwriting'WhenIlook;Idon'tthinkthisisanacceptablea