academic writing from language and learning online.docx

1、academic writing from language and learning onlineLanguage and Learning Onlinehttp:/www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/academic/2.xml, 2010-9-4What is academic writing?Different traditions, conventions and ways of thinking have developed in different areas of knowledge over the years, so

2、 you will find that academic writing differs from discipline to discipline. Researchers, when they publish their work, are always putting forward an argument of some kind, but how much this is obvious, how it is structured, what counts as evidence, depends on the discipline or field: whether it is h

3、istory, zoology, physics or whatever.Features of academic writing1. Authority and credibility2. style and clarity3. Structure 4. An analytical approach 5. Attribution of references Authority and credibilityYou need to develop your own credible academic voice as a marketer, a sociologist, an art hist

4、orian. These voices will all sound different, but all the time you are developing your repertoire. This practice will be of great value once you are a graduate and needing to produce different types of texts with different conventions for different audiences in your workplace.In academic writing, yo

5、ur ideas and claims must be supported by evidence and argument, and the sources of all ideas and data must be acknowledged.A point worth remembering is that your lecturer will ask the same types of questions when reading your essays as you ask when reading critically. That is, they will be looking t

6、o see how well supported your ideas or arguments are, and whether that support is valid, relevant, sufficient and convincing.They will consider any claims you make in the light of the evidence and support you provide, and in terms of the range and currency of sources you have consulted and referred

7、to.Which of the following statements reads as most credible and convincing? Why?1. Emotional intelligence is essential in the practice of management. 2. In my opinion emotional intelligence is essential in the practice of management. 3. According to Smith (1967) emotional intelligence is essential i

8、n the practice of management.4. Jones (2004) argues that emotional intelligence is essential in the practice of management. In his view successful management practice hinges on effective communication between people, and emotional intelligence can contribute to that. Key:1. Presents someones opinion

9、 as a factual statement.2. Presents the same statement as your opinion.3. Simply states the view of a writer (who may have done research on the topic or who may be expressing just a personal opinion we dont really know from according to) 4. Presents the view as something which needs to be argued for

10、, not something which can be accepted just because an author has said so. It is fine to say according to, but it does not (yet) really prove anything or give an idea of what sense you made of the information.Supporting your ideasRather than explicitly stating your opinion, in academic writing often

11、your opinion can emerge through your choice of sources and how you present and examine the ideas of others.In academic writing, we tend to avoid making categorical or emphatic statements. This is in order to: acknowledge that there may be exceptions acknowledge that there may be a range of possible

12、causes or explanations avoid making statements that cannot adequately be supported or defended. It is therefore often wise to: qualify your ideas explain your ideas explore your ideas. Some ways we avoid making emphatic statements: referral to tendencies using qualifiers and quantifiers acknowledgin

13、g exceptions and limitations. When you write or make a statement, ask yourself Is this true in all cases? Are there exceptions?Referring to tendenciesThese examples contain useful expressions to refer to tendenciesExamplesThe evidence suggests that diet was an important factor in the health of the r

14、espondents.This appears to indicate a tendency to ignore the warning signs.The results would seem to suggest thatOne possible explanation for the findings is thatThe findings suggest that age may be a contributing factor to the observed behaviour.The findings indicate a possible connection betweenAc

15、knowledging exceptions and limitationsAcknowledging exceptions in your writing (or limitations in a research study) reduces the likelihood of the reader raising those issues to criticize your argument or dispute your findings. There are a variety of expressions you can use to convey precise shades o

16、f meaning like qualifiers and quantifiers.Examples Whilst the findings of the study could be applied in most instances, there were some important exceptions. In particular, it was found that people with food allergies did not benefit from the changes to their diet, and in fact in some cases experien

17、ced negative reactions. The argument that sport is good for your health is hard to dispute, with the exception of instances when it leads to serious injury. For the majority of participants adventure sports like rock-climbing are very beneficial; however, for an unlucky minority such sports result i

18、n permanent injury or even death. A limitation of the study was the relatively small sample size. For this reason, these findings cannot be generalized to the broader community based on this study alone. QualifiersExamplesGenerally,In most cases,In generalAs a general ruleGenerally speakingOn averag

19、e,Style and clarityWhat does style and clarity in academic writing involve? precise use of formal language impersonal style clearly constructed sentences care with abbreviations and acronyms logical and systematic development of ideas. Formal languageWhen writing or speaking, we choose the words whi

20、ch seem most suitable to the purpose and audience. In academic writing we use formal language, avoiding the use of slang and colloquial language.Try to learn a range of appropriate language for expressing your opinions and referring to those of others.Some of the language in the following examples i

21、s more appropriate for speaking than writing. Identify which expressions are too informal.1. When I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, its hard not to worry about how many doctors will be available to treat patients in the future. 2. If we consider the situation in em

22、ergency wards, with increasingly low staff retention rates, there are concerns about the capacity of hospitals to maintain adequate doctor to patient ratios. 3. Its so obvious that people were given jobs just because they were male or female. I dont think that is an acceptable approach and is even a

23、gainst the law. 4. It appears that in a number of instances jobs were assigned on the basis of gender. Given the current anti-discrimination laws, this raises serious concerns. Formal Incorrect. Try again. Informal Correct! Formal Correct! Informal Incorrect. Try again. Formal Incorrect. Try again.

24、Informal Correct! Formal Correct! Informal Incorrect. Try again. In contrast to spoken English, a distinctive feature of academic writing style is for writers to choose the more formal alternative when selecting a verb, noun, or other part of speech.English often has two (or more) choices to express

25、 an action or occurrence. The choice is often between, on the one hand, a verb which is part of a phrase (often verb + preposition), and a verb which is one word only. Often in lectures and in everyday spoken English, the verb + preposition is used (eg speak up, give up, write down); however, for wr

26、itten academic style, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible.For exampleInformal: The social worker looked at the clients history to find out which interventions had previously been implemented.Academic: The social worker examined the clients history to establish which interventions

27、 had previously been implemented.Exercise 1Rewrite the sentences in a more academic style using verbs from the list below. Note that you may need to change the verb tense. investigate assist raise discover establish increase eliminate 1. Systems analysts can help out managers in many different ways.

28、 2. This program was set up to improve access to medical care. 3. Medical research expenditure has gone up to nearly $350 million. 4. Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects. 5. Exercise alone will not get rid of medical problems related to blood pressure. 6. Researchers h

29、ave been looking into this problem for 15 years now. 7. This issue was brought up during the coroners inquest.assistgone upincreasedAdapted from Swales, J. and Feak, C. M. Academic Writing for Graduate Students, pp. 5-9Impersonal styleCompare the changes in these sentences from informal to academic

30、style.Comparison of sentences from informal writing to academic writingInformal writingAcademic writingWhen I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, its hard not to worry about how many doctors will be available to treat patients in the future.If we consider the situation

31、 in emergency wards, with increasingly low staff retention rates, there are concerns about the capacity of hospitals to maintain adequate doctor to patient ratios.Its so obvious that people were given jobs just because they were male or female. I dont think that is an acceptable approach and is even

32、 against the law.It appears that in a number of instances jobs were assigned on the basis of gender. Given the current anti-discrimination laws, this raises serious concerns.You will notice that, in general, in academic writing we: minimize the use of the personal I in the text: avoid writing When I look; I dont think this is an acceptable a