The Constitutional Convention of 1787.docx

The Constitutional Convention of 1787.docx

《The Constitutional Convention of 1787.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《The Constitutional Convention of 1787.docx（11页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

TheConstitutionalConventionof1787

TheConstitutionalConventionof1787

Theroadfromindependencetoaconstitutionalgovernment

03April2008

TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates（1787）helpedcreatemoderndemocraciesworldwide.（NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration）

（ThefollowingarticlebyA.E.DickHowardistakenfromtheU.S.DepartmentofStatepublication,HistoriansonAmerica.）

TheConstitutionalConventionof1787

ByA.E.DickHoward

OnMay15,1776,theconventionmeetinginWilliamsburgandactingasVirginia'sdefactogoverningbodyinstructedthatcolony'sdelegatesatthecontinentalcongressinPhiladelphiatointroducearesolutiondeclaring"theUnitedColoniesfreeandindependentstates."ThatDeclarationofIndependencefromGreatBritain,adoptedbytheContinentalCongresssoonthereafteronJuly4,settheformercoloniesonanirrevocablecoursethatcreatedtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.ButthecreationoftheUnitedStatesofAmericadidnotoccurallatonce.Elevenyearslater,anothergroupofdelegatesjourneyedtoPhiladelphiatowriteaconstitutionforthenewnation,aconstitutionthatstilldefinesitslawandcharacter.

Theroadfromindependencetoconstitutionalgovernmentwasoneofthegreatjourneysinthehistoryofdemocraticgovernment,aroadcharacterizedbyexperiment,bymistakes,butultimatelyproducingsurelythemostinfluentialnationalconstitutioneverwritten.EvenbeforethebreakwithGreatBritain,theAmericancoloniessawtothenurturingoftheirfutureconstitutionalculture.ThelowerhousesofthecolonialassemblieswerethemostdemocraticbodiesintheEnglish-speakingworld,anddialoguewiththemothercountrysharpenedtheAmericans'senseofconstitutionalissues.Foradecadebeforetheoutbreakofrevolution,disputesovertaxes,trialswithoutjuries,andotherpointsofcontentionledtoanoutpouringofpamphlets,tracts,andresolutions–allmakingessentiallyaconstitutionalcaseagainstBritishpolicy.

Declaringindependence,thefoundersofAmericandemocracyunderstood,entailedestablishingtheintellectualbasisforself-government.OnthesamedaythattheWilliamsburgconventionspokeforindependence,thedelegatessettoworkonadeclarationofrightsandonaconstitutionforVirginia.Virginia's1776DeclarationofRightswassoonemulatedinotherstatesandeveninfluencedFrance'sDeclarationoftheRightsofManandtheCitizen（1789）.TheearlyAmericanstateconstitutions–everystateadoptedone–variedintheirspecifics（forexample,somecreatedaunicamerallegislature,othersoptedforbicameralism）.Buttheysharedabasiccommitmenttorepublicanprinciples,principlesthatthenseemedtrulyrevolutionaryinmostpartsoftheworld–consentofthegoverned,limitedgovernment,inherentrights,andpopularcontrolofgovernment.

Theseearlyexperimentsinrepublicangovernmentcarriedsignificantflaws.RecallingtheirexperienceasNorthAmericancolonistswithBritishroyalpower（includingcolonialgovernorsandcourts）,draftersoftheinitialstateconstitutionsreposedexcessivetrustinlegislatures.Checksandbalancesamongbranchesofgovernmentweremoretheorythanreality.Governorsweretypicallyelectedby（andthusdependenton）thelegislativebranches,andjudicialpowerwasasyetlargelyembryonic.Anotherflawintheoriginaldesignwasthatconstitutionsweredraftedbybodiesthatalsoservedaslegislativebodies,thusblurringthelinebetweenfundamentallawandordinarylaw.However,in1780Massachusettstookagreatstepforwardinconstitutionaldesignwhenitspeopleelectedaconventiontowriteaconstitutionwhich,inturn,wasvotedoninreferendum.

TheArticlesofConfederation

EvenmoredauntingthanadoptingstateconstitutionswastheframingofagovernmentfortheUnitedStates.WhenGreatBritainfinallyconcludedapeacetreatyin1783,lettingtheAmericancoloniesgo,thenationwascomposedof13stategovernments.Earlynationalistsentimentssooncollidedwithparochialinterests,withsuspicionsofhowcentralpowermightbeusedtothedisadvantageofindividualstates.Draftingofastructuretolinkthestateshadbegunin1776,butitwas1778beforetheArticlesofConfederationwereadoptedand1781beforeallthestateshadagreedtothatdocument.DistrustofcentralpowerwasmanifestinArticleII,whichdeclared,"EachStateretainsitssovereignty,freedom,andindependence,andeverypower,jurisdiction,andright,whichisnotbythisConfederationexpresslydelegatedtotheUnitedStates,inCongressassembled."

TheArticlescreatedacentralgovernmentthatprovedfeebleandineffective.InCongress,eachstate,regardlessofpopulation,hadanequalvote.ThestatelegislatureswereallowedtodecidehowdelegatestoCongressweretobeappointed,andastatecouldrecallandreplaceitsrepresentativesatanytimeforwhateverreasonitchose.Congresslackedthepowersessentialtoaccomplishingnationalpolicies.Ithadnotaxingpower,havingtorelyinsteadonthestates'willingnesstoprovidefunds–andthestatesoftenprovedunwilling.Thevoteofnineofthe13stateswasrequiredforCongresstoexerciseitspowers,suchasmakingtreatiesorborrowingmoney.AmendmentstotheArticlesrequiredtheassentofallthestates,givingeverystatealiberumveto,thatis,sufficientvetopowertoparalyzedemocraticprocess.TinyRhodeIslandcouldthusthwartthewilloftheother12states–asitdidinvetoingaproposaltogiveCongressthepowertolevydutiesonimports.

Inparticular,commercialrivalriesspawnedtradediscriminationamongthestates.Landlockedstatesfoundthemselvesatanotabledisadvantage,dependentuponstateswithgoodseaports.JamesMadisonlikenedNewJersey,situatedbetweenNewYorkandPhiladelphia,to"acasktappedatbothends,"andNorthCarolina,betweenthedeepharborsofHamptonRoadsandCharleston,to"apatientbleedingatbotharms."Thefeeblenessofthecentralgovernmentwasfurtherhighlightedbythelackofexecutiveorjudicialpowertodealwithdomesticdisorder.Forexample,beginningin1786,duringaperiodofeconomicdepression,mobsofimpoverishedfarmersinwesternMassachusettspreventedthecourtsfromfunctioningandorderingforeclosures.DanielShays,afarmerandformerrevolutionaryofficer,ledaforceattemptingtoseizethearsenalatSpringfieldbutwasrepulsed.Ingeneral,perhapsnoflawintheArticleswasasglaringastheinabilityofthecentralgovernmenttoactdirectlyuponindividuals,ratherthanhopeforthestatestoact.

In1785,VirginiaandMarylandappointedcommissionerstosettledisputesoverusesoftheChesapeakeBayanditstributaryrivers.Thesedelegatesthencalledforthestatestobeinvitedtodiscusswhetheramore"uniformsystem"oftraderegulationmightbeintheir"commoninterest."CongressrespondedbycallingameetingatAnnapolisin1786.Onlyfivestatesattendedthatmeeting,anditsmembersrecommendedthatthereshouldbeaconstitutionalconventioninPhiladelphiatoconsiderwhatshouldbedone"torendertheconstitutionofthefederalgovernmentadequatetotheexigenciesoftheUnion...."Virginiatooktheleadinappointingadelegation,andotherstatesfollowedsuit,forcingCongress'shand.Finally,inFebruary1787,Congressendorsedthecallingofaconvention.Significantly,however,Congress'sresolutionsaidthattheconventionshouldassemble"forthesoleandexpresspurposeofrevisingtheArticlesofConfederation"andreportingtoCongressrevisionswhichwouldbecomeeffectiveonlywhenagreedtoinCongressandconfirmedbythestates.

JamesMadisonandtheVirginiaPlan

Inspiteoftheinnateconservatismofthestates,however,onceassembled,theconventionproveddecisive.Aremarkablegroupof55menassembledinPhiladelphiainMay1787.Theirgraspofissueshadbeenhonedbywideexperienceinpubliclife–overhalfhadservedinCongress,sevenhadbeenstategovernors,andanumberhadbeeninvolvedinwritingstateconstitutions.GeorgeWashington,thegeneralfromVirginiawhohadledthewaragainsttheBritish,broughtspecialprestigetothegatheringwhenheagreedtoserveasitspresidingofficer.OthernotablesincludedAlexanderHamilton（NewYork）,BenjaminFranklin（Pennsylvania）,andJamesWilson（Pennsylvania）.PerhapsthemostconspicuousabsencewasThomasJefferson,whohaddraftedtheDeclarationofIndependencebutwhowasnowservingastheUnitedStates'ministertoParis.

ItsoonbecameapparentthatthemostimportantandrespectedvoiceattheconventionwasthatofJamesMadison,ofVirginia.ActiveinVirginiapolitics,MadisonhadacquiredanationalreputationasamemberoftheContinentalCongress,wherehewasinstrumentalinbringingaboutVirginia'scessionofitsclaimtowesternterritories,creatinganationaldomain.MadisonbecameincreasinglyconvincedthatthelibertyofAmericansdependedontheUnion'sbeingsufficientlystrongtodefendthemfromforeignpredatorsand,athome,tooffsettheexcessesofpopulargovernmentintheindividualstates.NoonecametoPhiladelphiabetterprepared.Hehadtakentheleadinseeingthatthenation'sbesttalentwasattheconvention.Moreover,intheweeksbeforethemeeting,hehadreaddeeplyintheexperiencesofancientandmodernconfederaciesandhadwrittenamemorandumonthe"VicesofthePoliticalSystemoftheUnitedStates."FirsttoarriveinPhiladelphia,MadisonpersuadedVirginia'sdelegationtoproposeaplanwhich,farfromsimplyrevisingtheArticles,wouldreplacethemwithanationalgovernmentofsweepingpowers.Derivingitsauthorityfromthepeople,Congresswouldhavethepower"tolegislateinallcasestowhichthesepa