戴炜栋语言学讲课笔记.docx

戴炜栋语言学讲课笔记.docx

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戴炜栋语言学讲课笔记

Chapter1:

Introduction

1.1Whatislinguistics?

1.1.1Definition

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Ittriestoanswerthebasicquestions

◆   Whatislanguage?

◆   Howdoeslanguagework?

◆   Whatdoalllanguageshaveincommon?

（languageuniversal语言共同性）

◆   Whatrangeofvariation（变体）isfoundamonglanguages?

（dialect.Mandarin普通话，accent）

◆   Whatmakeslanguagechange?

◆   Towhatextentaresocialclassdifferencesreflectedinlanguage?

（sociolinguistics社会语言学）

◆   Howdoesachildacquirehismothertongue?

（languageacquisition语言习得）

1.1.2Thescopeoflinguistics（语言学研究的范围）branches

●     generallinguistics（普通语言学）

●     phonetics（语音学）

●     phonology（音系学）

●     morphology（形态学）

●     syntax（句法学）

●     semantics（语义学）

Example:

boy:

humanmaleyounganimate

girl:

humanfemaleyounganimate

componentialanalysis语义成分分析

●     pragmatics（语用学）

Itiscoldhere.

Pleaseclosethedoor.

Iwanttoputonmoreclothes.

Idon’twanttostayhere.

●     sociolinguistics（社会语言学）

●     psycholinguistics（心理语言学）

●     appliedlinguistics（应用语言学）

broadsense:

广义,

narrowsense:

狭义=languageteaching

1.1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics（语言学中一些重要的概念区分）

1.1.3.1Prescriptivevs.descriptive（规定与描写）

Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;

Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydown（规定）rulesfor"correctandstandard"behaviourinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.

1.1.3.2Synchronic（共时语言学）vs.diachronic（历时语言学）

●     Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.

●     Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.

1.1.3.3Speechandwriting（言语与文字）

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways"invented"byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.

1.1.3.4Langueandparole（语言与言语）

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.（语言社区）

Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.（actualuseoflanguage,concrete）

Differences:

1.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.（语言事件）

2.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.（Saussure索绪尔）

1.1.3.5Competenceandperformance（语言能力和语言运用）

competenceandperformance,

Chomsky（乔姆斯基）（aprof.atMIT）definescompetence（langue）astheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformance（parole）theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

WhileSaussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.

1.1.3.6Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics（传统语法与现代语言学）

《普通语言学教程》Saussure索绪尔

Thedifferences:

Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.

Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.

Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframeworkofthelanguagesusedbymankind.

1.2Whatislanguage?

1.2.1Definitionsoflanguage

◆   "Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols."（Sapir,1921）

◆   Languageis"theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols."（Hall,1968）

◆   "FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset（finiteorinfinite）ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements."（Chomsky,1957）

◆   Languageisasystemofarbitrary（任意的）vocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.

Second,languageisarbitrary（任意的）inthesensethatthereisnointrinsic（天生的，内在的）connectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor,forinstance,betweentheword"pen"andthethingwewritewith.

（ThisconventionalnatureoflanguageiswellillustratedbyafamousquotationfromShakespeare'splay"RomeoandJuliet":

"Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet."）

Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.

Theterm"human"inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.

1.2.2Designfeatures（识别特征）

1）      Arbitrariness（任意性）

2）Productivity（多产性）

3）Duality（二重性）

4）Displacement（移位）

5）Culturaltransmission（文化传递）

-Chapter1

-Chapter2

-Chapter3

-Chapter4

-Chapter5

-Chapter6

-Chapter7

-Chapter8

-Chapter9

-Chapter10

Chapter2:

Phonology

2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage（语言的语音媒介）

Speechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Manylanguagesintheworldtodayarebothwrittenandspoken.Butstatisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.

Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwritingforreasonsthatwerediscussedinthelastchapter.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways"invented"byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.

Languageisfirstperceivedthroughitssounds.Thusthestudyofsoundsisofgreatimportanceinlinguistics.Naturally,linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds;theyareconcernedonlywiththosesoundsthatareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgansandhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.Thesesoundsarelimitedinnumber.Thislimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage（语言的语音媒介）;andtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（言语语音）.

2.2Phonetics（语音学）

2.2.1Whatisphonetics?

Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.

Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview.

First,itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeaker'spointofview,i.e.,howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Then,itlooksatthesoundsfromthehearer'spointofview,i.e.,howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.Lastly,itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.Thesethreebranchesofphoneticsarelabelledarticulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）,andacousticphonetics（声学语音学）respectively.

Ofthethreebranchesofphonetics,articulatoryphoneticshasthelongesthistory.However,someimportantfactshavealsobeeneitherdiscoveredorconfirmedbyacousticandauditoryphonetics,especiallybytheformer.Acousticphoneticianstrytodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissues.Todescribetheseproperties,theyrecordthesoundwavesonmachinescalledspectrographs（频谱仪）.Bystudyingthesoundwavesthusrecorded,theyhavediscoveredthatwhatmightbeheardasthesameoneutteranceisonlycoincidentally,ifever,physicallyidentical.The"same"soundsweclaimtohaveheardareinmostcasesonlyphoneticallysimilar,butrarelyphoneticallyidentical.Phoneticsimilarity,notphoneticidentityisthecriterionwithwhichweoperateinthephonologicalanalysisoflanguages.

2.2.2Organsofspeech（发音器官）

Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:

thepharyngealcavity（咽腔）--thethroat,theoralcavity（口腔）-themouth,andthenasalcavity（鼻腔）--thenose.Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinvariousways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynxbeforeitreachesanyofthecavities.Suchmodificationresultsfromsomekindofinterferencewiththemovementoftheairstream.Theprincipalsourceofsuchmodificationsisthetongue,andtheword"language"itselfderivesfromtheLatinword"lingua",meaningthe"tongue".ThepharyngealcavityAircomingfromthelungsandthroughthewindpipepassesthroughtheglottis,apartofthelarynx,whichisabonystructureattheendofthewindpipe.Thisisthefirstpointwheresoundmodificationmightoccur.Lyingacrosstheglottisarethevocalcords.Thesetwothintissuescanbeheldtightlytogethertocutoffthestreamofair,aswhenoneis'holdinghisbreath'.Theycanberelaxedandfoldedbackateachsidetoletairflowthroughfreelyandsilentlyasinnormalbreathing.Thentheymayalsobeheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthematdifferentspeedswhenforcingits