The 18 british history2.docx

The 18 british history2.docx

《The 18 british history2.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《The 18 british history2.docx（21页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

The18britishhistory2

The18th-centuryBritishHistory

（PartTwo）

Zhengboren

Contents

HistoricalReview

⏹1770:

CaptainJamesCookundertookhisfirstvoyagetotheSouthPacificandexploredthetwoislandsofNewZealandandtheeasterncoastofAustralia,whichheclaimedforBritainandnamedNewSouthWales;January17,1773hebecamethefirstpersontocrosstheAntarcticCircleinrecordedhistory

⏹1775-1783:

AmericanRevolution

⏹1789:

FrenchRevolution

⏹HoratioNelson（1758-1805）:

1789,inthebattlesoftheNilehedefeatedNapoleon'snavy/IntheBattleofTrafalgar,onOctober21,1805,NelsonoverwhelminglydefeatedthecombinedFrenchandSpanishfleets

⏹1807：

Abolitionoftheslavetrade,vigorouslysupportedbyCharlesJamesFox,waspassed.

⏹1815:

inthebattleofWaterlooDukeofWellingtondefeatedNapoleon’sarmy

JamesCook

vBritishexplorerandnavigatorCaptainJamesCooksailedaroundtheworldtwice,madethreevoyagestothePacificOcean,andbecamethefirstEuropeantovisitHawaii.CooksailedtoTahiti,NewZealand,Australia,VancouverIsland,andtheHawaiianIslands,wherehewaskilledinafightwithislanders.

WorksofCaptainJamesCook

A.IndustrializationandProgress

vEarlyStagesofIndustrialization

vThe development of industryinBritainwasalongandgradualprocess.IndustrializationtookplaceearlierandmorerapidlyinBritainthananywhereelsebecauseexistingconditionswerefavorableinEngland.

vAsystemofinternalwaterwaysandcanalsandtheabsenceofphysicalbarrierstotrademadethetransportofgoodslessdifficultthaninothernations.

vCoalfieldsandthickforests,locatedconvenientlyclosetolargedepositsofmetalores,providedfueltopowerthefurnacesthatproducediron.

vThrivingcommercialbanksprovidedfinancingforinvestmentsinindustrialplantsandmachinery.

vAdvances in agriculturealsocontributedtotheindustrializationprocess.Beginninginthemid-17thcentury,Englandunderwentaprocessofagriculturalimprovementthatenabledfewerfarmerstofeedmorepeoplewhilecultivatingthesameamountofland.

vBetween1750and1800,grainyieldsrose50percent;thisincreasesustainedthesteadilyrisingpopulation,whichinEnglandgrewfrom5.5millionin1750toaround9millionin1801,toover16millionby1851.

vAgriculturalimprovementnotonlyproducedmorefoodatcheaperprices,italsoallowedfarmstoproducemorefoodwithfewerworkers.Workerswhocouldnolongerfindworkonfarmsmigratedtothetownsinsearchofemployment.Asaresult,therewasadramaticshiftinpopulationduringthe19thcenturyfromtheagriculturalsoutheasttotheMidlandsandthenorth,whereindustrywaslocated.

The first phase of industrialization

vcottonclothing

vThe first phase of industrializationcenteredontheproductionofcottonclothing.Atthebeginningofthe18thcenturyBritainstillexportedfinishedcottonclothfromIndia.Soondomesticmanufacturingreversedthisflow,andEnglandbecametheworld’sprimarysupplierofcottoncloth.

vTwodevelopmentsmadethispossible:

theavailabilityofcheaprawcottonfromEgyptandAmerica,andtheinventionofnewmachinesthatenabledworkerstospinmorethreadandweavemorecloth.

vOne of these new machineswasknownasthespinningjenny.Itusedfootpedalstocontrolthespinningofmultiplethreads.Thisdeviceallowedaworkertospin200timesasmuchthreadin1815ascouldbespun50yearsearlier.Anothermechanicaldevice,theflyingshuttle,quicklyandautomaticallypassedthreadthroughaloom,thedeviceonwhichclothiswoven.Thisflyingshuttleenabledonepersontooperatealoom,whereaspreviouslyithadtakenanentireteamofworkers.

thespinningjenny

vJohnKay（1704-1764）developedtheflyingshuttle（1733）fortextilemanufacture./JamesHargreaves（1720-1778）inventedthespinningjennyin1764,madepossibletheautomaticproductionofcottonthread

vThe operation of machinerybecamemoreefficientandprofitablewiththeadditionofwaterpowerandlatertheperfectionoftherotarysteamenginebyScottishinventorJamesWatt.Cottonproductionsoared.By1815Britainwasexporting100timestheamountofcottonithadexportedhalfacenturyearlier.Cottonbecameitsmostimportantproduct.

vWater-PoweredMill

vEarlymanufacturingemployedwater-poweredmachinery.Waterturnedthepaddlesofawheel,whichinturnmovedgrindingstonesorothermechanicaldevices.Modernwaterwheels,calledwaterturbines,drivegeneratorsthatproduceelectricity.

v1765:

ScottishinventorJamesWatt,inventionofSteamerinBirmingham/thebeginningofIndustrialRevolution

vWith the introductionofmachinery,factoriesbecamethesiteoforganizedproductionoftextiles,replacingsmall-scalemanufactureinthehome.Atfirstmostfactorieswerecomparativelysmall,employingfewerthan100workers.Theywereefficientandinitiallyallowedfamiliestoremaintogether,husbandsweaving,wivesspinning,andchildrenfetchingandcarrying.Ultimately,however,factoriesdisruptedfamilylife.Womenandchildreneasilyoperatedthepower-drivenmachines,andtheyworkedthesame12-hourdaysasmen.Sincefactoryownerscouldpaywomenandchildrenlowerwages,menweredrivenoutoftheindustry.Thecraftofhandloomweavingdisappearedamidstgreathardship.Anoccupationthatemployedabout250,000menin1820sustainedfewerthan50,000by1850.

vIn some communities, displacedworkersattackedfactoriesandfactoryowners.Inothers,riotersknownasLudditesattackedthemachinesthemselves.Ludditesattemptedtodefendtheircommunitiesandtheirwayoflife,buttheywereunabletostopthedevelopmentofnewfactories.Factoryownersgrewrichbyproducingcheap,durablecottonswiththenewmachines.

SirRichardArkwright

vIn1769BritishinventorRichardArkwrightpatentedhisspinningframe,whichspuncottonfiberintothread.ArkwrightestablishedhugecottonmillsthatbecamethemodelsforthefactorysystemoftheIndustrialRevolution.

IronandRailroads

vIron was the miracle productofindustrialization.Engineersusedittobuildthemachinesthatpoweredproductionandultimatelytherailsandenginesthatpowereddistribution.IronhadlongbeenrefinedinEnglandinfurnacesthatusedcharcoalasfuel.Thisprocess,knownassmelting,involvedheatingironoretohightemperaturestoremovemostoftheimpurities.However,charcoalleftsomeimpuritiesintheiron,whichmadeitdifficulttocasttheironintobars.

vAbrahamDarby,anEnglishironmanufacturer,discoveredthatsmeltingwithcoke,apurifiedformofcoal,madepossibletheproductionofabetterproduct.

vNewlydevelopedtechniquesallowedtheirontobeheatedandstirredingreatvatsuntilimpuritieshadburnedoff.Factoryworkersthenfedthecoolingironthroughrollingmachinesthatformeditintobars.By1850Englishmanufacturerswereproducingmorethanhalfoftheworld’siron.

vThe most important useofthisenormousoutputofironwasinbuildingrailroads.

vTherailroadsdevelopedasaresultofthetechnologicaladvancesmadeduringtheIndustrialRevolution.Theironfactoriesproducedhigh-gradematerialsuitableforconstructingtrainenginesandtracks.Skilledironworkersprovidedmachinepartsofexactsizes.

vInventorsputWatt’ssteamenginetouse,firsttopumpwaterfrommines,thentodrivepistonsupanddown,andfinallytogeneratetherotarymotionthatpropelledthewheelsoftrains.

vSystems of rails and carriageshadlongexistedtomovecoalfromtheminestothebargesonwhichitwasshipped.Humansorhorsespulledthesecarriages.After1800inventorsbeganexperimentingwithWatt’ssteamengineasameansofpoweringcarriages.

vIn1829engineerandinventorGeorgeStephensoncreatedanenginethatcouldpullthreetimesitsweightandoutrunahorse.Thefollowingyearthefirstimportantrailwayopened,carryingcoalandbulkgoodsbetweenManchesterandLiverpool.Itsooncarriedmorepeoplethanproducts.Passengertravelbyrailwasfaster,cheaper,andmorecomfortablethantravelbycoach.Theintroductionoftherailroadchangedforeverconceptsofspeedanddistancethatwerecenturiesold.Hundredsofindependentrailwaycompaniessprangup.Theyinvestedmillionsofpoundstoemployhundredsofthousandsoflaborerstolaythousandsofmilesofirontrack.AllrailroadlinesultimatelyconnectedtoLondon,thecommercialcenterofthenation.

vBritishengineerRichardTrevithickpioneeredtheuseofsteampowerforlocomotioninthe1790sand1800s.In1804heconstructedthefirstpracticalsteamlocomotiveoperatingonarailwayanddemonstrateditsuseforhaulinglargeloads.

vGeorgeStephenson（1781-1848）,Britishinventorandengineer,whobuiltthefirstpracticalrailroadlocomotive/In1829hedesignedalocomotiveknownastheRocket,whichhauledbothfreightandpassengersatagreaterspeedthanhadanylocomotiveconstructeduptothattime.ThesuccessoftheRocketgreatlystimulatedthesubsequentconstructionoflocomotivesandthelayingofrailroadlines.

TheImpactofIndustrialization

vIndustrialization transformednearlyeveryaspectofBritishlife.GlasgowcametorivalEdinburghasacenterofwealthinScotland.Ireland,whichhadgrownfasterthanScotlandthroughoutthe18thcentury,failedtoindustrializeandremainedlargelyagricultural,withdireconsequences.FaminedevastatedIrelandin1845afterafungusdestroyedthepotatocrop,whichhadbecomeastapleoftheIrishdiet.

vIn 1851, for the firsttime,manufacturingemployedmoreworkersthanagriculture.Thegrowthofindustrialcitieswasstaggering.Whilethepopulationasawholegrewby