The 18 british history2.docx

1、The 18 british history2The 18th-century British History(Part Two)Zheng boren ContentsHistorical Review 1770: Captain James Cook undertook his first voyage to the South Pacific and explored the two islands of New Zealand and the eastern coast of Australia, which he claimed for Britain and named New S

2、outh Wales; January 17, 1773 he became the first person to cross the Antarctic Circle in recorded history 1775-1783: American Revolution 1789: French Revolution Horatio Nelson (1758-1805): 1789, in the battles of the Nile he defeated Napoleons navy/ In the Battle of Trafalgar, on October 21, 1805, N

3、elson overwhelmingly defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets 1807：Abolition of the slave trade, vigorously supported by Charles James Fox, was passed. 1815: in the battle of Waterloo Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleons army James Cookv British explorer and navigator Captain James Cook sail

4、ed around the world twice, made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, and became the first European to visit Hawaii. Cook sailed to Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia, Vancouver Island, and the Hawaiian Islands, where he was killed in a fight with islanders. Works of Captain James CookA. Industrialization

5、 and Progress v Early Stages of Industrializationv Thedevelopmentofindustry in Britain was a long and gradual process. Industrialization took place earlier and more rapidly in Britain than anywhere else because existing conditions were favorable in England. v A system of internal waterways and canal

6、s and the absence of physical barriers to trade made the transport of goods less difficult than in other nations. v Coalfields and thick forests, located conveniently close to large deposits of metal ores, provided fuel to power the furnaces that produced iron. v Thriving commercial banks provided f

7、inancing for investments in industrial plants and machinery. v Advancesinagriculture also contributed to the industrialization process. Beginning in the mid-17th century, England underwent a process of agricultural improvement that enabled fewer farmers to feed more people while cultivating the same

8、 amount of land. v Between 1750 and 1800, grain yields rose 50 percent; this increase sustained the steadily rising population, which in England grew from 5.5 million in 1750 to around 9 million in 1801, to over 16 million by 1851. v Agricultural improvement not only produced more food at cheaper pr

9、ices, it also allowed farms to produce more food with fewer workers. Workers who could no longer find work on farms migrated to the towns in search of employment. As a result, there was a dramatic shift in population during the 19th century from the agricultural southeast to the Midlands and the nor

10、th, where industry was located. Thefirstphaseofindustrializationv cotton clothingv Thefirstphaseofindustrialization centered on the production of cotton clothing. At the beginning of the 18th century Britain still exported finished cotton cloth from India. Soon domestic manufacturing reversed this f

11、low, and England became the worlds primary supplier of cotton cloth. v Two developments made this possible: the availability of cheap raw cotton from Egypt and America, and the invention of new machines that enabled workers to spin more thread and weave more cloth. v Oneofthesenewmachines was known

12、as the spinning jenny. It used foot pedals to control the spinning of multiple threads. This device allowed a worker to spin 200 times as much thread in 1815 as could be spun 50 years earlier. Another mechanical device, the flying shuttle, quickly and automatically passed thread through a loom, the

13、device on which cloth is woven. This flying shuttle enabled one person to operate a loom, whereas previously it had taken an entire team of workers. the spinning jennyv John Kay (1704-1764) developed the flying shuttle (1733) for textile manufacture./ James Hargreaves (1720-1778) invented the spinni

14、ng jenny in 1764, made possible the automatic production of cotton threadv Theoperationofmachinery became more efficient and profitable with the addition of waterpower and later the perfection of the rotary steam engine by Scottish inventor James Watt. Cotton production soared. By 1815 Britain was e

15、xporting 100 times the amount of cotton it had exported half a century earlier. Cotton became its most important product.v Water-Powered Millv Early manufacturing employed water-powered machinery. Water turned the paddles of a wheel, which in turn moved grinding stones or other mechanical devices. M

16、odern water wheels, called water turbines, drive generators that produce electricity.v 1765: Scottish inventor James Watt, invention of Steamer in Birmingham/ the beginning of Industrial Revolution v Withtheintroduction of machinery, factories became the site of organized production of textiles, rep

17、lacing small-scale manufacture in the home. At first most factories were comparatively small, employing fewer than 100 workers. They were efficient and initially allowed families to remain together, husbands weaving, wives spinning, and children fetching and carrying. Ultimately, however, factories

18、disrupted family life. Women and children easily operated the power-driven machines, and they worked the same 12-hour days as men. Since factory owners could pay women and children lower wages, men were driven out of the industry. The craft of handloom weaving disappeared amidst great hardship. An o

19、ccupation that employed about 250,000 men in 1820 sustained fewer than 50,000 by 1850. v Insomecommunities,displaced workers attacked factories and factory owners. In others, rioters known as Luddites attacked the machines themselves. Luddites attempted to defend their communities and their way of l

20、ife, but they were unable to stop the development of new factories. Factory owners grew rich by producing cheap, durable cottons with the new machines. Sir Richard Arkwrightv In 1769 British inventor Richard Arkwright patented his spinning frame, which spun cotton fiber into thread. Arkwright establ

21、ished huge cotton mills that became the models for the factory system of the Industrial Revolution.Iron and Railroads v Ironwasthemiracleproduct of industrialization. Engineers used it to build the machines that powered production and ultimately the rails and engines that powered distribution. Iron

22、had long been refined in England in furnaces that used charcoal as fuel. This process, known as smelting, involved heating iron ore to high temperatures to remove most of the impurities. However, charcoal left some impurities in the iron, which made it difficult to cast the iron into bars. v Abraham

23、 Darby, an English iron manufacturer, discovered that smelting with coke, a purified form of coal, made possible the production of a better product. v Newly developed techniques allowed the iron to be heated and stirred in great vats until impurities had burned off. Factory workers then fed the cool

24、ing iron through rolling machines that formed it into bars. By 1850 English manufacturers were producing more than half of the worlds iron.v Themostimportantuse of this enormous output of iron was in building railroads. v The railroads developed as a result of the technological advances made during

25、the Industrial Revolution. The iron factories produced high-grade material suitable for constructing train engines and tracks. Skilled ironworkers provided machine parts of exact sizes. v Inventors put Watts steam engine to use, first to pump water from mines, then to drive pistons up and down, and

26、finally to generate the rotary motion that propelled the wheels of trains. v Systemsofrailsandcarriages had long existed to move coal from the mines to the barges on which it was shipped. Humans or horses pulled these carriages. After 1800 inventors began experimenting with Watts steam engine as a m

27、eans of powering carriages. v In 1829 engineer and inventor George Stephenson created an engine that could pull three times its weight and outrun a horse. The following year the first important railway opened, carrying coal and bulk goods between Manchester and Liverpool. It soon carried more people

28、 than products. Passenger travel by rail was faster, cheaper, and more comfortable than travel by coach. The introduction of the railroad changed forever concepts of speed and distance that were centuries old. Hundreds of independent railway companies sprang up. They invested millions of pounds to e

29、mploy hundreds of thousands of laborers to lay thousands of miles of iron track. All railroad lines ultimately connected to London, the commercial center of the nation.v British engineer Richard Trevithick pioneered the use of steam power for locomotion in the 1790s and 1800s. In 1804 he constructed

30、 the first practical steam locomotive operating on a railway and demonstrated its use for hauling large loads.v George Stephenson (1781-1848), British inventor and engineer, who built the first practical railroad locomotive/ In 1829 he designed a locomotive known as the Rocket, which hauled both fre

31、ight and passengers at a greater speed than had any locomotive constructed up to that time. The success of the Rocket greatly stimulated the subsequent construction of locomotives and the laying of railroad lines.The Impact of Industrialization v Industrializationtransformed nearly every aspect of B

32、ritish life. Glasgow came to rival Edinburgh as a center of wealth in Scotland. Ireland, which had grown faster than Scotland throughout the 18th century, failed to industrialize and remained largely agricultural, with dire consequences. Famine devastated Ireland in 1845 after a fungus destroyed the potato crop, which had become a staple of the Irish diet. v In1851,forthefirst time, manufacturing employed more workers than agriculture. The growth of industrial cities was staggering. While the population as a whole grew by