Final Revision September 1994.docx

Final Revision September 1994.docx

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FinalRevisionSeptember1994

FinalRevision,September,1994

Adaptingmanagementframeworkstobetteraccount

forhard-to-definevaluesofpubliclands

DanielJ.StynesandGeorgeL.Peterson

INTRODUCTION

Publiclandmanagementagencies（PLMA's）arechargedwithmanagingthepublicestatetoserveamultitudeofuses,publics,andvalues.PLMA'suseavarietyofmanagementframeworkstoorganizeandguidethiscomplextask.Someoftheseframeworksareinstitutionalizedintheformoflaws,policies,administrativerules,orstandardoperatingprocedures（SOP's）.Otherframeworksaremoreinformal,andsomearesimplypersonalpreferencesormanagementstylesofindividualsororganizations.Benefitcostanalysis（B/C）,therecreationopportunityspectrum（ROS）,andmanagementbyobjectives（MBO）areexamplesofwellknownmanagementordecisionmakingframeworks,asarepublicinvolvementandbroaderpoliticalprocesses.

Frameworksplayveryimportantrolesinbothdefiningandsolvingmanagementproblems.Managementframeworkshelptoorganizeandstructuretheprocessofdefiningproblems,gatheringinformation,identifyingandevaluatingalternatives,andmakingdecisions.Frameworkssuggestthekeyplayers,therelevantinformationtofocusonandinmanycaseshowthisinformationshouldbeorganizedtoaddresstheproblem.

Whilewegenerallythinkofmanagementframeworksasprovidingguidance,theycanalsomisdirectattention.Inappropriate,outdatedorincompleteframeworksmaymisguidemanagementdecisionsbyomittingormisrepresentingkeyvariables,relationships,values,orstakeholderperspectives.Frameworkscanmisdirectattentionanddistorttheimportanceofonesetofproblems,variables,publics,orvaluesattheexpenseofothers.Likeanytool,agivenmanagementordecisionmakingframeworkmaybeabused,poorlyapplied,orextendedtoproblemstowhichitisnotwellsuited.Whatisausefulandvalidframeworktoonepersonmaybeseenasquiteinappropriatetoanother.Toaconsiderableextentourperspectiveonaparticularproblemandmanyofourvaluesareembeddedintheframeworkswechoose.

Theabilityorinabilityofexistingmanagementframeworkstohandlecertain"hardtodefine"valuesisourconcernhere.Frameworksfrequentlydirectourattentiontocertainvaluesandparticularrepresentationsofthesevalues.InhighlystructuredanalyticalframeworkslikeB/Canalysis,valuesaremadeexplicit,sothatitisclearwhichvalueshavebeenconsideredornotconsidered,howeachvaluehasbeenrepresented,andwhatroleorweighteachreceivesinagivenmanagementdecision.Inothertypesofframeworks,likepublicinvolvementprocessesandadvisorygroups,valuesareimplicitlyrepresentedbyvariousparticipants.Bydefinition,"hardtodefine"valuesaregenerallyimplicit,leavingconsiderableroomforinterpretationofwhether,how,orhowwellsuchvalueshavebeentakenintoaccountinagivendecision.

Weinitiallyapproachedthischapterthinkingoffairlyspecificmanagementanddecisionmakingframeworkslikebenefitcostanalysis,publicinvolvementprocedures,theROSsystemandthelike.Theseframeworkseachprovideanexplicitorimplicitwayofincorporatingcertainvaluesinpubliclandmanagementdecisions.Ourtaskwastoextendtheseframeworkstobetteraccountfor"hardtodefinevalues"andmulticulturalperspectives.Aswelistenedtotheotherparticipantsattheworkshopsorganizedtoplanthisbook,itdawnedonusthatmostoftheframeworkswewereconsideringwerealreadypartofaparticularculturalperspective,i.e.thepubliclandmanagementandsupportingresearchprofessions.Objectionsvoicedby"outsiders"wereoftenasmuchwiththeframeworksthemselvesaswiththehandlingofparticularvalueswithintheseframeworks.

Frameworksarenotvalueneutral.Frameworksimplictlyembraceasetofcurrentlyheldvalues.Indeed,oneimportantroleofframeworksistoemphasizeandfosteraparticularsetofvalues.Embeddedwithinbenefitcostanalysisarevaluesofefficiency,consumersovereignty,themarketsystem,andformalanalyticalprocesses.Publicinvolvementframeworksembodythevaluesofademocraticsystem,informedcitizenryandpoliticalprocess.ROS,LACandothercarryingcapacity-relatedframeworksembracevaluesofsustainabilityandconservation.Theseembeddedvaluesareoftenwidelyshared,atleastwithintheorganizationsandindividualsembracingaparticularframework,sothattheyarerarelyquestionedfromwithin.Acrossculturesanddisciplines,however,thereisconsiderablediversityanddisagreementoverframeworks.Battlesbetweenenvironmentalistsanddevelopers,economistsandsociologists,RepublicansandDemocrats,andMarxistsandCapitalistsareasmuchoverframeworks,asoveranyparticularvalues.Whentwogroupsarehavingdifficultycommunicating,theyoftenhavenotagreedonacommonlanguageorperspective.

PUBLICLANDMANAGEMENTAGENCYPARADIGMS

Theterm"paradigm"wasintroducedbyKuhn（1962）todescribehowresearchisguidedanddirectedbyanagreeduponsetofconcepts,theories,andmethods.BrownandHarris（1992）notehowtheideaextendsreadilytoparticularculturalworldviews（Pirages1977,DunlapandvanLiere,1984）andtopubliclandmanagementorganizations（Behan1990）.TheparadigmunderwhichaparticularPLMAoperatesisdefinedbythelegislation,missionstatements,organizationalstructures,managementframeworks,valuesandindividualsthatguidetheagency.Managementframeworksandvaluesbothdefineandandaredefinedbytheorganization'sdominantparadigm.ImportantelementsofthedominantPLMAparadigmsintheUnitedStatesarestewardship,professionalism,scientificmanagement,alandethic,efficiency,andpublicparticipationindecisions.Spiritualandother"hardtodefine"valuesthatdonotreceiveextensiveattentionwithinPLMA'stendtofalloutsideof,orinsomecasesconflictwithoneormoreelementsofthedominantparadigm.

Twoalternativewaystoincreaseconsiderationofthesehardtodefinevaluesistolinkthevaluesmoreclearlytoexistingparadigmsortoadoptnewlandmanagementparadigmsthatbetterreflectandsupportthesevalues.Thesetwoapproachesareveryapparentinthechaptersofthisbookwithsomeauthorssuggestingmarginaladjustmentsinexistingapproaches,whileothersargueforentirelynewparadigms.AsBrownandHarris（1992）pointout,competingparadigmsexistwithinPLMA'sliketheU.S.ForestServiceandtovaryingdegreesthesecompetingparadigmsseektochangeoroverthrowtheacceptedorofficialones.

Thevaluesandparadigmsembodiedbypubliclandmanagementorganizationsare,however,onlypartofthepicture.PLMA'saremadeupofindividualswhoalongwiththeorganizationitself,functionwithinaparticularcultural,social,andpoliticalcontext.Individualmanagersbringtheirownvalues,worldviews,decisionmakingstylesandculturalbackgroundstotheirjobs.Decisionsandapproachestakenbyanygivenindividualintheorganizationwillreflectbothorganizationalandpersonalvalues.Collectivedecisionsaremorelikelytoreflectthecommonorganizationalparadigm,althoughthesetoowillbeinfluencedbythemixofindividualsthatareinvolved.Oneoftheargumentsforworkforcediversityistocaptureabroaderrangeofperspectives,stylesandvalueswithintheorganization.

PUBLICS:

ANOTHERSETOFPARADIGMSANDVALUES

Thepublicin"publiclandmanagement"dictatesthatthevaluesofawiderangeofindividuals,organizations,andstakeholdergroupsbeconsideredinlandmanagementdecisions.PartofthechangingmanagementparadigmofPLMA'soverthepasttwentyyearshasbeentheaddedimportanceofpublicinvolvement.Thisparadigmshiftinvolveschangesinproceduresandframeworks,aswellasachangeinphilosophy（Sample1993）.Whilepublicinvolvementservesavarietyofpurposesfrominformationaltocooption（Heberlein1976）therolethatdirectlyconcernsushereistheuseofpublicinvolvementasavehicleforinjectingadditionalvalueinformationintopubliclandmanagementdecisions.PublicparticipationproceduresareoneoftheprimaryvehiclesPLMA'susetodealwithhardtodefinevalues,as"easiertodefine"valuescanoftenbecapturedwithinexistinganalyticalframeworks.

Partofthecomplexityofpubliclandmanagementisthenumberanddiversityofpublicswithinterestsinhowpubliclandsaremanaged.Publicshavetraditionallybeendefinedtoincluderelatedfederal,stateandlocalagencies,specialcommodityandenvironmentalinterestgroups,andindividualstakeholders.Thesepublicsholdsomewhatdistinctvaluesrelativetomanagementissues,butperhapsmoreimportantlytheyapproachtheissuesfromquitedistinctperspectives.Eachperspectivesuggestsasomewhatdifferentmanagementordecisonmakingframework,whichinturndictateswhatvaluesarerelevantandhowtheyarerepresented.Objectionsarefrequentlyraisedwhenvaluesarisingfromoneworldvieworperspectiveareforcedintoaframeworkthatisseenasincompatible.

CulturaldiversitypresentsarelativelynewsetofissuesforPLMA's.Minoritygroupshavenothistoricallybeenwellrepresentedwithinpubliclandmanagementprofessions/agencies（Mohai,Stillmanet.al.1994）orinpublicparticipationforums（Burch1976,ForceandWilliams1989）.ManaginglandstoaccountforculturaldiversitythereforeposesnewchallengesforPLMA's（McDonough1991）.Differencesinvaluesandculturalparadigmsorworldviewsarefurtherconfoundedbydifferencesinlanguagesandincommunicationandnegotiationstyles.HowcanPLMA'sbettercommunicatevalueinformationacrossculturesinordertounderstandandreconcilevaluesthatarerepresente