环境学概论英文版.docx

环境学概论英文版.docx

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环境学概论英文版

Environmentalpolicyanddecisionmaking

Objectives

Afterreadingthischapter,youshouldbeableto:

.explainhowtheexecutive,judicial,andlegislativebranchesoftheU.Sgovernmentinteractinformingpolicy.

.UnderstandhowenvironmentallawsareenforcedintheUnitedStates.

.Describetheforcesthatledtochangesinenvironmentalpolicyintheunitedstatesduringthepastthreedecades.

.UnderstandthehistoryofthemajorU.Senvironmentallegislation.

.UnderstandwhysomeindividualsintheUnitedStatesareconcernedaboutenvironmentalregulations.

.Understandwhatismeantby“green”politics.

.Describethereasonsenvironmentalismisagrowingfactorininternationalrelations.

.Understandthefactorsthatcouldresultineco-conflicts.

.Understandwhyitisnotpossibletoseparatepoliticsandtheenvironment.

.Explainhowcitizenpressurecaninfluencegovernmentalenvironmentalpolicies.

ChapterOutline

NewChallengesforaNewCentury

Learningfromthepast

ThinkingabouttheFuture

DefiningtheFuture

TheDevelopmentofEnvironmentalPolicyintheUnitedStates

EnvironmentalBacklash—TheWiseUseMovement

TheChangingNatureofEnvironmentalPolicy

EnvironmentalClose-UP:

shapingU.S.

EnvironmentalPolicyastheNewCenturyBegins

EnvironmentalPolicyandRegulation

TheGreeningofGeopolitics

EnvironmentalClose-up:

ChangingtheNatureofEnvironmentalRegulation-TheSafeDrinkingWaterAct

TerrorismandtheEnvironment

InternationalEnvironmentalPolicy

GlobalPerspective:

EarthSummiton

EnvironmentandDevelopment

GlobalPerspective:

OverviewofanInternationalOrganization-TheInternationalWhalingCommission

GlobalPerspective:

Eco-LabelsEnvironmentalPolicyandtheEuropeanUnion

NewInternationalInstruments

ItAllComesBacktoYou

NewChallengesforaNewCentury

Weliveinremarkabletimes.Thisisaneraofrapidandoftenbewilderingalter-ationsintheforcesandconditionsthatshapehumanlife.Thisisevidentbothinthealterednatureofgeopoliticsinthepost-ColdWareraandinthegrowingunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweenhumanbeingsandthenaturalworld.Thisrelationshipvaries,however,betweenthedevelopinganddevelopedcountriesoftheworld.Oneofthemajorchallengesoftheforeseeablefuturewillbecenteredonworldwideenvironmentalimpactasdevelopingnationsevolveeconomically.

TheendoftheColdWarhasbeenaccompaniedbytheswiftadvanceofdemocracyinplacewhereitwaspreviouslyunknownandanevenmorerepidspreadofmarket-basedeconomies.Theauthorityofcentralgovernmentsiseroding,andpowerhasbeguntoshifttolocalgovernmentsandprivateinstitutions.Insomecountries,freedomandopportunityareflourishing,whileinothers,thesechangeshaveunleashedtheviolenceofoldconflictsandnewambitions.

Internationally,trade,investment,information,andevenpeopleflowacrossborderslargelyoutsideofgovernmentalcontrol.Domestically,deregulationandtheshiftofresponsibilitiesfromfederaltostateandlocalgovernmentsarechangingtherelationshipsamonglevelsofgovernmentandbetweengovernmentandtheprivatesector.

Communicationstechnologyhasenhancedpeople,sabilitytoreceiveinformationandinfluenceeventsthataffectthem.Thishassparkedexplosivegrowthinthenumberoforganizations,associations,andnetworksformedbycitizens,businesses,andcommunitiesseekingagreatervoicefortheirinterests,Asaresult,societyoutsideofgovernment—civilsociety—isdemandingagreaterroleingovernmentaldecisions,whileatthesametimeimpatientlyseekingsolutionsoutsidegovernment,spowertodecide.

Buttechnologicalinnovationischangingmuchmorethancommunication.Itischangingthewaysinwhichwelive,work,produce,andconsume.Knowledgehasbecometheeconomy,smostimportantanddynamicresource.Ithasrapidlyimprovedefficiencyasthosewhocreateandsellgoodsandservicessubstituteinformationandinnovationforrawmaterials.Duringthepast25years,theamountofenergyandnaturalresourcestheU.S.lawsfirstrequiredindustrytocontrolpollution,theresponsewastoinstallcleanupequipment.Theshifttoaknowledge-driveneconomyhasemphasizedthepositiveconnectionamongefficiency,profits,andenvironmentalprotectionandhelpedlaunchatrendinprofitablepollutionprevention.Moreandmorepeopletodaynowunderstandthatpollutioniswaste,wasteisinefficient,andinefficiencyisexpensive.

Evenastheiraccesstoinformationandtomeansofcommunicationhasincreased,citizensofthemoredevelopednationarebecomingcynicalabout,andfrustratedwith,traditionalpoliticalarrangementsthatnolongerseemresponsivetotheirneeds.Theconfidenceofmanycitizensinthelargeinstitutionsthataffecttheirlives—suchasbusiness,government,themedia,andenvironmental,labor,andcivicorganizationsiseroding.Individualcitizenshavelostfaithintheirabilitytoinfluenceeventsandhavesurrenderedtoapathy,orworse,toanger.

SincetheendofworldwarII,theworld,seconomicoutputhasincreasedsubstantially,allowingwidespreadimprovementsinhealth,education,andopportunitybutalsocreatinggrowingdisparitiesbetweenrichandpoor.Eveninthehighlydevelopednations,thegapbetweenrichandpooriswidening.

Tomorrow,sworldwillbeshapedbytheaspirationsofamuchlargerglobalpopulation.Thenumberofpeoplelivingonearthhasdoubledinthelast50years.Growingpopulationsdemandmorefood,goods,services,andspace.Wherethereisscarcity,populationincreaseaggravatesit.Strugglingtosurviveinplacesthatcannolongersustainthem,growingpopulationsoverfish,overharvest,andovergraze.

Aswebeginthenewcentury,itisimportantthatwerecognizethateconomic,environmental,andsocialgoalsareintegrallylinkedandthatwedeveloppoliciesthatreflectthatinterrelationship.Thinkingnarrowlyaboutjobs,energy,transportation,housing,orecosystems—asiftheywerenotconnected—createsnewproblemsevenasitattemptstosolveoldones.Askingthewrongquestionsisasurewaytogetmisleadinganswersthatresultinshorttermremediesforsymptoms,insteadofcuresforlong-termproblems.

Allofthiswillrequirenewmodesofdecisionmaking,rangingfromthelocaltotheinternationallevel.Whiletrendisnotalwaysdestiny,thetrendthathasbeenevolvingoverthepastseveralyearshasbeentowardmorecollaborativeformsofdecisionmaking.Perhapssuchcollaborativestructureswillinvolvemorepeopleandabroaderrangeofinterestsinshapingandmakingpublicpolicy.Itishopedthatthiswillimprovedecisions,mitigateconflict,andbegintocounteractthecorrosivetrendsofcynicismandcivicdisengagementthatseemtobegrowing.

Morecollaborativeapproachestomakingdecisionscanbearduousandtime-consuming,andalloftheplayersmustchangetheircustomaryroles.Forgovernment,thismeansusingitspowertoconveneandfacilitate,shiftinggraduallyfromprescribingbehaviortosupportingresponsibilitybysettinggoals,creatingincentives,monitoringperformance,andprovidinginformation.

Fortheirpart,businessesneedtobuildthepracticeandskillsofdialoguewithcommunitiesandcitizens,participatingincommunitydecisionmakingandopeningtheirownvalues,strategies,andperformancetotheircommunityandthesociety.

Advocates,too,mustaccepttheburdensandconstraintsofrationaldialoguebuiltontrust,andcommunitiesmustcreateopenandinclusivedebateabouttheirfuture.

Doesallofthissoundtooidealistic?

Perhapsitis;however,withoutavisionforthefuture,wherewouldwebe?

Aswasstatedpreviously,trendisnotdestiny.Inotherwords,wearecapableofchangeregardlessofthestatusquo.Thisisperhapsnowheremoreimportantthanintheworldofenvironmentaldecisionmaking.

Learningfromthepast

Forthepastquartercentury,thebasicpatternofenvironmentalprotectionineconomicallydevelopednationshasbeentoreacttospecificcrises.Institutionshavebeenestablished,lawspassed,andregulationswritteninresponsetoproblemsthatalreadywereposingsubstantialecologicalandpublichealthrisksandcosts,orthatalreadywerecausingdeep-seatedpublicconcern.

TheUnitedStatesisnoexception.TheU.SEnvironmentalProtectionAgency（EPA）hasfocuseditsattentionalmostexclusivelyonpresentandpastproblems.Thepoliticalwilltoestablishtheagencygrewoutofaseriesofhighlypublicized,seriousenvironmentalproblems,suchasthefireontheCuyahogaRiverinOhio,smoginLosAngeles,andthenearextinctionofthebaldeagle.Duringthe1970sand1980s,Congressenactedaseriesoflawsintendedtosolvetheseproblems,andtheEPA,whichwascreatedin1970s,wasgiventheresponsibilityforenforcingmostenvironmentallaws.

Despitesuccessincorrectinganumberofexistingenvironmentalproblems,therehasbeenacontinuingpatternofnotrespondingtoenvironmentalproblemsuntiltheyposeimmediateandunambiguousrisks.Suchpolices,however,willnotadequatelyprotecttheenvironmentinthefuture.Peoplearerecognizingthattheagenciesandorganizationswhoseactivitiesaffecttheenvironmentmustbegintoanticipatefutureenvironmentalproblemsandthentakestepstoavoidthem.Oneofthemostimportantlessonslearnedduringthepastquartercenturyofenvironmentalhistoryisthatthefailuretothinkaboutthefutureenvironmentalconsequencesofprospectivesocial,economic,andtechnologicalchangesmayimposesubstantialandavoidableeconomicandenvironmentalcostsonfuturegenerations.

Thinkingaboutthefuture

Thinkingaboutthefutureismoreimportanttodaythaneverbefore,becausetheacce