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4

MotivationandValues

CHAPTERSUMMARY

Marketerstrytosatisfyconsumerneeds,butthereasonsanyproductispurchasedcanvarywidely.Theidentificationofconsumermotivesisanimportantstepinensuringthattheappropriateneedswillbemetbyaproduct.Motivationreferstotheprocessesthatcausepeopletobehaveastheydo.Marketersareveryinterestedinconsumergoals,drives,andwants.

Traditionalapproachestoconsumerbehaviorhavefocusedontheabilitiesofproductstosatisfyrationalneeds（utilitarianmotives）,buthedonicmotives（e.g.,theneedforexplorationorforfun）alsoplayaroleinmanypurchasedecisions.Drivetheoryfocusesonbiologicalneedsthatproduceunpleasantstatesofarousal.Thistheoryexplainssomeofhumanbehaviorbutnotall.Expectancytheorysuggeststhatbehaviorislargelypulledbyexpectationsofachievingdesirableoutcomes—positiveincentives—ratherthanpushedfromwithin.

Motivationalconflictsoccur.Threeconflictsarecharacterizedinthechapter.First,inanapproach-approachconflict,apersonmustchoosebetweentwodesirablealternatives.Second,inapproach-avoidanceconflict,manyproductsandserviceswedesirehavenegativeconsequencesattachedtothem.Lastly,inavoidance-avoidanceconflict,consumersfaceachoicewithtwoundesirablealternatives.

AsdemonstratedbyMaslow’shierarchyofneeds,thesameproductcansatisfydifferentneeds,dependingupontheconsumer’sstateatthetime.Inadditiontotheconsumer’sobjectivesituation（i.e.,wheneverbasicphysiologicalneedshavealreadybeensatisfied）,theconsumer’sdegreeofinvolvementwiththeproductmustbeconsidered.

Afactofthemarketplaceisthatnotallconsumersaremotivatedtothesameextent.Involvementreferstothelevelofperceivedpersonalimportanceand/orinterestevokedbyastimulus（orstimuli）withinaspecificsituation.Involvementhasmanyfaces.Includedintheseareproductinvolvement,message-responseinvolvement,andpurchasesituationinvolvement.Degreeofinvolvementbecomesameansbywhichtosegmentamarketand,therefore,devisestrategiestoreachdifferentinvolvedsegments.

Consumermotivationsareoftendrivenbyunderlyingvalues.Inthiscontext,productstakeonmeaningbecausetheyareseenasbeinginstrumentalinhelpingthepersontoachievesomegoalthatislinkedtoavalue（suchasindividualityorfreedom）Numerousformsofvaluesareexaminedinthechapter.Alsoexaminedarescalesthatmeasuretheshiftinvaluesovertime.ThischapterconcludeswithanexaminationoftheimpactthattheeventsofSeptember11,2001,hadonsocietalvalues.

CHAPTEROUTLINE

1.TheMotivationProcess

a.Motivationreferstotheprocessesthatcausepeopletobehaveastheydo.Once

aneedhasbeenactivated,astateoftensionexiststhatdrivestheconsumerto

attempttoreduceoreliminatetheneed.

b.Needscanbe:

1）Utilitarian—adesiretoachievesomefunctionalorpracticalbenefit.

2）Hedonic—anexperientialneed,involvingemotionalresponsesorfantasies.

c.Thedesiredendstateistheconsumer’sgoal.Marketerstrytocreateproductsand

servicesthatwillprovidethedesiredbenefitsandpermittheconsumertoreduce

thistension.

d.Withtheconsiderationofunmetneeds,adiscrepancyexistsbetweenthe

consumer’spresentstateandsomeidealstate.Tensioniscreated.Theconsumer

seekstoreducetension.Thedegreeofarousaliscalledadrive.

e.Personalandculturalfactorscombinetocreateawant.Thisisonemanifestation

ofaneed.

1）Onceagoalisattained,tensionisreducedandthemotivationrecedes.

2）Motivationcanbedescribedintermsof:

a）Itsstrength

b）Itsdirection

DiscussionOpportunity—Ask:

Pretendyouaretoexplainmotivationtoafriend.Whatwouldyousay?

Whatexampleswouldyouuse?

（Dothesamesubstitutinggoal,drive,andwant）

DiscussionOpportunity—Bringinexamplesofmagazineadsthatdemonstrateanattempttoactivate（a）autilitarianneedor（b）ahedonicneed.

2.MotivationalStrength

a.Thedegreetowhichapersoniswillingtoexpendenergytoreachonegoalas

opposedtoanotherreflectshisorherunderlyingmotivationtoattainthatgoal.

BiologicalVersusLearnedNeeds

b.Earlyworkonmotivationascribedbehaviortoinstinct（theinnatepatternsof

behaviorthatareuniversalinaspecies）Whenaninstinctisinferredfromthe

behavioritissupposedtoexplain,thiscircularexplanationiscalledtautology.

c.Drivetheoryfocusesonbiologicalneedsthatproduceunpleasantstatesofarousal.

1）Tensionreductionhasbeenproposedasabasicmechanismgoverninghuman

behavior.

2）Homeostasis—goal-orientedbehaviorthatattemptstoreduceoreliminatean

unpleasantstateandreturntoabalancedone.

3）Drivetheoryrunsintodifficultywhenittriestoexplainwhypeoplesometimesdo

thingsthatmightincreaseadrivestate（suchasdelayinggratification）.

d.Expectancytheorysuggeststhatbehaviorislargelypulledbyexpectationsof

achievingdesirableoutcomes—positiveincentives—ratherthanpushedfrom

within.

DiscussionOpportunity—Ask:

Canyouthinkofpurchasesituationsthatillustratedrivetheoryandexpectancytheory?

Whichoneofthetheoriesdoyouthinkissuperior?

DiscussionOpportunity—IfacaroftouristsdrivesintoanunfamiliartownatmealtimeandstopsatMcDonald’sinsteadofanequallyattractiveandprice-competitiveJOE’SEats,whichofthetwotheories（expectancyordrive）wouldprobablybeatwork?

HowwouldJOE’Scombatthis?

3.MotivationalDirection

a.Motiveshavedirectionaswellasstrength.Mostgoalscanbereachedbyanumberof

paths.

NeedsVersusWants

b.Thespecificwayaneedissatisfieddependsontheindividual’suniquehistory,

learningexperiences,andhisorherculturalenvironment.

1）Theparticularformofconsumptionusedtosatisfyaneedistermedawant.

TypesofNeeds

c.Needscanbe:

1）Biogenicneeds—food,water,air,andshelter

2）Psychogenicneeds—power,status,affiliation

3）Utilitarianneeds—emphasizesobjective,tangibleattributes（milespergallon）

4）Hedonicneeds—subjectiveandexperiential（excitement,self-confidence,

fantasy）

DiscussionOpportunity—Ask:

Whatisaproductorserviceyoucouldpurchasetofulfillapsychogenicneed?

Utilitarianneed?

Hedonicneed?

Howwouldamarketeradvertisetoyouwithrespecttofulfillingtheseneeds?

Howwouldyouknowthatyouhadfulfilledtheneed?

Consumers’desireforadventure,eventingedwithabitofdanger,hasmeantbigbusinessfortheadventuretravelindustry,whichspecializesinprovidingwhite-knuckledexperiences.Bungeejumping,whichoriginatedin1979,hasnowbeenjoinedbywhite-waterrafting,skydiving,mountainbiking,andotherphysicallystimulatingactivitiesthatareincreasinginpopularity.ThissegmentofthetravelindustryhasbeenestimatedtoaccountforonefifthoftheU.S.leisuretravel-market.1

MotivationalConflicts

d.Agoalhasvalence,whichmeansthatitcanbepositiveornegative.Therefore

goalscanbesoughtoravoided.

1）Notallbehaviorismotivatedbythedesiretoapproachagoal.

2）Consumersoftenfindthemselvesinsituationsinwhichdifferentmotives,both

positiveandnegative,conflictwithoneanother.

DiscussionOpportunity—Thinkofgoalsthataresoughtandthosethatarenot.Sharesomeexampleswiththestudents.

DiscussionOpportunity—Giveanillustrationofwhenmotivesconflictwithoneanotherinpurchasingsituations.Ask:

Cananyonethinkofanotherexampleofwhenmotivesconflict?

e.Conflictscanoccur.Threedifferenttypesofgoalconflictsare:

1）Approach-approachconflict—apersonmustchoosebetweentwodesirable

alternatives.

a）Thetheoryofcognitivedissonanceisbasedonthepremisethatpeople

haveaneedfororderandconsistencyintheirlivesandthatastateof

tensioniscreatedwhenbeliefsorbehaviorsconflictwithoneanother.

b）Peopleattempttoreducedissonance.

c）Astateofdissonanceexistswhenthereisapsychologicalinconsistency

betweentwoormorebeliefsorbehaviors.

DiscussionOpportunity—Ask:

Howcouldamarketerusetheoryofcognitivedissonancetotheiradvantage?

WhatdoyouthinkofMiller’sclassic“TastesGreat,LessFilling”campaign?

2）Approach-avoidanceconflict—manyproductsorserviceswedesirehave

negativeconsequencesattachedtothem.

3）Avoidance-avoidanceconflict—achoicebetweentwoundesirable

alternatives.

*****UseFigure4-1Here;UseConsumerBehaviorChallenge#1Here*****

DiscussionOpportunity—Giveanillustrationofeachofthethreemajorformsofconflict.Youmightevenfindexamplesofadvertisementsthatdemonstratethethreeconflictsituations.Ask:

Howcanmarketersusetheseconflictstotheiradvantage?

ClassifyingConsumerNeeds

f.Muchresearchhasbeendoneonclassifyinghumanneeds.

1）Variousuniversalneedclassificationshavebeenattempted.

2）Thereseemstobenouniversallyacceptedlist（thoughmanyneedsarecommon

toalllists）.

a）Murray’spsychogenicneeds—usedasthebasisfortheThematic

AppreciationTest（TAT）.

g.Thoseneedsthatseemparticularlyrelevanttobuyingbehaviorinclude:

1）Needforachievement

2）Needforaffiliation

3）Needforpower

4）Needforuniqueness.

h.Maslow’shierarchyofneedsimpliesthattheorderofdevelopmentisfixed.This

hierarchyismostcloselyassociatedwithproductbenefitsthatpeoplemightbe

lookingfor.Lowerorderneedsmustbesatisfiedbeforeclimbingtheneedsladder.

Theneedsare:

1）Physiological

2）Safety

3）Social

4）Esteem

5）Self-actualization

*****UseFigure4-2Here*****