语言学重点笔记.docx
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语言学重点笔记
Outline
•Micro-linguistics
•Macro-linguistics
•Interdisciplinarystudies
Micro-linguistics:
branches
---intermsoflinguisticsitself
•Phonetics:
sounds
•Phonology:
soundpatterns
•Morphology:
wordformation
•Syntax:
sentences
•Semantics:
linguisticmeaning
•Pragmatics:
meaninginuse
Macro-linguistics
---concerningthewholeworld
•Sociolinguistics(&genderdifference)
•Psycholinguistics:
slipofthetongue
•Neurolinguistics:
Broca’sarea
•Computationallinguistics
•Philosophicallinguistics
•Anthropologicallinguistics
Interdisciplinarystudies
---relatingtootherobjects
•Stylistics:
linguisticsandliterature
•Appliedlinguistics:
linguisticsandforeignlanguageteaching
TheHistoryofLinguistics
Historyoflinguistics
(1)4th-5thcenturyB.C.:
Indianlinguistics
(2)2nd-3rdcenturyB.C.:
Greeklinguistics
(3)14th-17thcentury:
Descartes
(4)18th-19thcentury:
Humboldt
(5)1sthalfof20thcentury:
Structuralist
(6)2ndhalfof20thcentury:
Generative&Chomsky,systemic-functional&Halliday
Thelatestdevelopment
•Casegrammar
•Thegenerativesemantics
•Optimalitytheory(OT)
•Cognitivegrammar
•Discourseanalysisundertheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar
ImportantConcepts&Distinctions
Outline
•PartI:
Whatislanguage?
•PartII:
Designfeaturesoflanguage
•PartIII:
Functionsoflanguage
•PartIV:
Importantdistinctions
PartI:
Whatislanguage?
•Whatislanguage?
–Languageisusedforcommunication.
–Tounderstandwhatlanguageis,wemustfirstmakeclearwhatcommunicationisandhowlanguageisusedincommunication.
Thedefinitionoflanguage
•Languageisusuallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsdesignedforthepurposeofhumancommunication.
PartII
Designfeaturesoflanguage
•Designfeatures:
Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages.
•1.Arbitrariness:
Theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.
–E.g.book/buk/-书(shu)---theentity
•2.Duality
–Twolevelsofstructure
–Sounds-syllables-morphemes-words-sentences-texts/discourses
–/k,ai,n,d,n,i:
s/-/kaind,ni:
s/-(kind,ness)-kindness-herkindnesswarmshim---
•3.Creativity
•Resourceful
•Newsentences,newmeanings
•Endlesssentences
•Importantfeaturetoseparatehumanlanguagefromanimallanguage.
•4.Displacement:
–Notpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.
PartIIIFunctionsoflanguage
•1.Informative/ideational:
–Thefactsandexperienceoftheworld,includingtheinnerworld.
•2.Interpersonal
–Performative
–Emotive/expressive
–Phatic
•3.Recreational/poetic:
Crosstalk
•4.Metalingual:
Languageisusedtotalkaboutitself,tocreateterms(case,person…)todiscussitself.
PartIV:
Distinctions
•1.Descriptivevs.prescriptive
–Howthingsarevs.howthingsoughttobe
–Linguisticsshouldtrytodiscoverandrecord,nottoprescribe.
•Amansays“Heain’tagoodguy.”
•Weshouldsay“Heisn’tagoodguy.”
•Donotsay“X”.(Iisagoodgirl.)
•Peopledonotsay“X”.(Iisagoodgirl.)
•2.Synchronicvs.diachronic
–Afixedinstantasitspointofobservation.
–Throughthecourseofitshistory.
•3.Langue&parole
–Langue:
•Linguisticcompetenceofthespeaker
•Thelexicon,grammar,andphonology
•Notcompleteinanyspeaker
•Onlyexistingperfectlywithinacollectivity
•Social,essential
–Parole:
•Theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances),actualuseoflanguage
•Individual,accidental
•4.Competence&performance
–Competence:
alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules,anidealspeaker’sknowledgeoflanguage
–Performance:
theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations
•5.Eticvs.Emic
–Bothcomefromthesuffixesofphoneticsandphonemics.
–Thedifferencesoftheirmeaningsaretheabstractionsofthedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonemics.
–Phonetics:
studiesthephysicalproperties(acoustic,articulatory)ofspeechsounds
–Phonemics:
relatingtophoneme,functional/distinctiveaspect
IntroductiontoPhonetics
Outline
•PartI:
Thedistinctionofphonetics&phonology
•PartII:
Thebranchesofphonetics
•PartIII:
Speechorgans
•PartIV:
IPAandphonetictranscription
•PartV:
Consonantsandvowels
•
•PartIThedistinctionsofphonetics&phonology
•Bothofthemarethestudiesofspeechsounds.
•
•Phonetics:
•Howspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived,physicalaspect
•
•Phonology:
•Thestudyofsoundsystemsoflanguage
•Principlesgoverningthewaysoundsareorganized
•PartIIThebranchesofphonetics
•Articulatoryphonetics:
•Productionofspeechsounds
•
•Acousticphonetics:
•Transmission,physics
•
•Auditory/perceptualphonetics:
•Perceptionofspeechsounds
•PartIIISpeechorgans
•Vocaltract
•Oralcavity:
•Mouth:
lips
•Tongue:
tip,blade,front,back,root
•Palate:
hard,soft,uvula
•Teeth:
upper,lower
•Nasalcavity
•Pharynx
•
•PartIV:
IPAandphonetictranscription
•
•IPAisanabbreviationfor
•InternationalPhoneticAssociation
•InternationalPhoneticAlphabet
•
•Phonetictranscriptions
•
•Phonetictranscriptions
•Broad
•Narrow
•
•
•PartVConsonantsandVowels
•
•Consonants:
constrictingtodivert,impede,orshutofftheair
•
•Vowels:
withoutsuchobstruction
•
•Semi-vowel/semi-consonant:
yet,wet,hot
•Consonants
•Thecategoriesofconsonants:
•
•Mannersofarticulation:
thewaytheairpassesthrough
•
•Placesofarticulation:
wheretheobstructionofairtakesplace
•Mannersofarticulation
•
•Stop(plosive)(爆破音):
•Oralstops/stops:
[p,b,t,d,k,g]
•Nasalstops/nasals:
[m,n,ŋ]
•
•
•Fricative(摩擦音):
•[f,v,θ,ð,s,z,∫,З,h]
•
•Approximant(流音):
[w,r,j]
•
•Lateral(边音):
[l]
•
•Affricate(塞擦音):
[t∫,dЗ,ts,dz,tr,dr]
•Placesofarticulation
•
•Bilabial:
[p,b,m,w](pet,betmet,wet)
•
•Labiodental:
[f,v](five,via)
•
•Dental:
[θ,ð](thief,clothes)
•
•Alveolar:
[t,d,n,s,z,r,l]
•
•Postalveolar:
[∫,З,t∫,dЗ]
•
•Palatal:
[j](yet,yes)
•
•Velar:
[k,g,ŋ],Chinese(he,和)
•ThedescriptionsofEnglishconsonants(RP)
•
•Voicing
•
•Representedby[+voiced]and[-voiced]
•
•([+voiced]):
/b/,/d/,……
•
•
•([-voiced]):
/p/,/t/,……
•[p]voicelessbilabialstop
•
•[b]voicedbilabialstop
•
•[s]voicedalveolarfricative
•
•[z]voicedalveolarfricative
•
•[t]voicelessalveolarstop
•
•[d]voicedalveolarstop
•
•[m]bilabialnasal
•
•[l]lateral
•
•[j]palatalapproximant
•
•[h]glottalfricative
•Vowels
•Criteriaofvoweldescription:
•
•Heightoftongueraising—high,mid,low
•
•Positionofthehighestpartofthetongue—front,central,back
•
•Lengthortensenessofthevowel—tenseorlax,longorshort
•
•Lip-rounding—roundedorunrounded
•Coarticulation
•
•Aphenomenonthatcertainsoundsareinfluencedbytheirneighbors.
•
•
•Coarticulationincludesanticipatory(right-to-left)andperseverative(left-to-right)coarticulation.
•Introductiontophonology
•Outline
•I.Phoneme
•
•II.Phonologicalprocess
•
•III.Distinctivefeatures
•
•IV.Syllable
•I.Phoneme
•
•Minimalpairs
•
•Phone,allophones,freevariants,complementarydistribution
•
•Aminimalpairisanytwowordsthat
•①Containthesamenumberofsound
•segments
•②Differinmeaning
•③Exhibitonlyonephoneticdifference
•E.g.:
pin&bin
•
•Phoneme:
•/i:
/,/i/,/e/,/a:
/,/u/,/u:
/,/t/,……
•Distinguishmeaning
•Smallestdistinctiveunitofsound
•
•Phones:
[p=],[ph],[t],[d],[f],[v]
•
•
•Allophones:
[p=,ph]ofthesamephoneme/p/
•
•①Phoneticallysimilar
•②Incomplementarydistribution
•Complementarydistribution
•
•
•/p/→[p=]/[s]___(speak)
•[ph]elsewhere(peak)
•
•/l/→[l]/___V(lead)
•[l]V___(deal)(darkl)
•
•Note:
Notallphonesincomplementarydistributionareallophones.
•
•[h]&[ŋ]
•
•[w]&[ŋ]?
•Freevariants:
•
•Ofthesamephoneme,thesamewordispronouncedindifferentways
•
•either[ai,i:
]
•direction[i,ai]
•IIPhonologicalprocess
•
•A→B/C(AchangestoBunderconditionC)
•
•A→B/D___
•
•A→B/___D
•
•A→B/D___E
•
•‘/’:
environmentinwhichchangetakesplace
•
•‘___’:
focusbar:
positionoftargetsegment
•Assimilation
•
•Regressive:
Nasalization(can)
•[-nasal]→[+nasal]/___[+nasal]
•
•Progressive:
Devoicing(beds,seats,cases)
•z→s/[–voiced,C]___
•
•
•Epenthesis:
ø→[ә]/sibilant___z
•Sibilants:
/s,z,∫,з,t∫,dз/)
•
•ø→[n]/[ә]___V
•(ahotel,anapple…)
•Ruleordering
•Thepluralformsofnouns
•
•/s/appearsaftervoicelesssounds
•
•/z/appearsaftervoicedsounds
•
•/әz/appearsaftersibilants
•(sibilants:
/s,z,∫,з,t∫,dз/)
•
•
•seat-sbed-scase-sword
•
•/si:
t+z//bed+z//keis+z/Input
•sN/AsDevoicing
•N/AN/AN/AEpenthesis
•si:
tsbedz*keissOutput
•
•/si:
t+z//bed+z//keis+z/Input
•N/AN/AәEpenthesis
•sN/AN/ADevoicing
•si:
tsbedzkeisәzOutput
•III.Distinctivefeatures
•
•Distinguishonephonemefromanother
•
•Binaryfeatures:
+/-
•
•Examples:
[+voiced]/b,d,g,z…/
•[+nasal]/m,n,ŋ/
•[-cons]/i:
e,a:
…/
•IV.Syllable
•Syllable=Onset+Rhyme
•
•Rhyme=Nucleus+Coda
•
•Example:
klasp
•(kl)---onset
•(asp)---rhym
•(a)---nucleus
•(sp)---coda
•
•English:
(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)
•
•Chinese:
(C)V(C)
•
•
•
•