语言学重点笔记.docx

语言学重点笔记.docx

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语言学重点笔记

Outline

•Micro-linguistics

•Macro-linguistics

•Interdisciplinarystudies

Micro-linguistics:

branches

---intermsoflinguisticsitself

•Phonetics:

sounds

•Phonology:

soundpatterns

•Morphology:

wordformation

•Syntax:

sentences

•Semantics:

linguisticmeaning

•Pragmatics:

meaninginuse

Macro-linguistics

---concerningthewholeworld

•Sociolinguistics（&genderdifference）

•Psycholinguistics:

slipofthetongue

•Neurolinguistics:

Broca’sarea

•Computationallinguistics

•Philosophicallinguistics

•Anthropologicallinguistics

Interdisciplinarystudies

---relatingtootherobjects

•Stylistics:

linguisticsandliterature

•Appliedlinguistics:

linguisticsandforeignlanguageteaching

TheHistoryofLinguistics

Historyoflinguistics

（1）4th-5thcenturyB.C.:

Indianlinguistics

（2）2nd-3rdcenturyB.C.:

Greeklinguistics

（3）14th-17thcentury:

Descartes

（4）18th-19thcentury:

Humboldt

（5）1sthalfof20thcentury:

Structuralist

（6）2ndhalfof20thcentury:

Generative&Chomsky,systemic-functional&Halliday

Thelatestdevelopment

•Casegrammar

•Thegenerativesemantics

•Optimalitytheory（OT）

•Cognitivegrammar

•Discourseanalysisundertheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar

ImportantConcepts&Distinctions

Outline

•PartI:

Whatislanguage?

•PartII:

Designfeaturesoflanguage

•PartIII:

Functionsoflanguage

•PartIV:

Importantdistinctions

PartI:

Whatislanguage?

•Whatislanguage?

–Languageisusedforcommunication.

–Tounderstandwhatlanguageis,wemustfirstmakeclearwhatcommunicationisandhowlanguageisusedincommunication.

Thedefinitionoflanguage

•Languageisusuallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsdesignedforthepurposeofhumancommunication.

PartII

Designfeaturesoflanguage

•Designfeatures:

Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages.

•1.Arbitrariness:

Theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.

–E.g.book/buk/-书（shu）---theentity

•2.Duality

–Twolevelsofstructure

–Sounds-syllables-morphemes-words-sentences-texts/discourses

–/k,ai,n,d,n,i:

s/-/kaind,ni:

s/-（kind,ness）-kindness-herkindnesswarmshim---

•3.Creativity

•Resourceful

•Newsentences,newmeanings

•Endlesssentences

•Importantfeaturetoseparatehumanlanguagefromanimallanguage.

•4.Displacement:

–Notpresent（intimeandspace）atthemomentofcommunication.

PartIIIFunctionsoflanguage

•1.Informative/ideational:

–Thefactsandexperienceoftheworld,includingtheinnerworld.

•2.Interpersonal

–Performative

–Emotive/expressive

–Phatic

•3.Recreational/poetic:

Crosstalk

•4.Metalingual:

Languageisusedtotalkaboutitself,tocreateterms（case,person…）todiscussitself.

PartIV:

Distinctions

•1.Descriptivevs.prescriptive

–Howthingsarevs.howthingsoughttobe

–Linguisticsshouldtrytodiscoverandrecord,nottoprescribe.

•Amansays“Heain’tagoodguy.”

•Weshouldsay“Heisn’tagoodguy.”

•Donotsay“X”.（Iisagoodgirl.）

•Peopledonotsay“X”.（Iisagoodgirl.）

•2.Synchronicvs.diachronic

–Afixedinstantasitspointofobservation.

–Throughthecourseofitshistory.

•3.Langue&parole

–Langue:

•Linguisticcompetenceofthespeaker

•Thelexicon,grammar,andphonology

•Notcompleteinanyspeaker

•Onlyexistingperfectlywithinacollectivity

•Social,essential

–Parole:

•Theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics（utterances）,actualuseoflanguage

•Individual,accidental

•4.Competence&performance

–Competence:

alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules,anidealspeaker’sknowledgeoflanguage

–Performance:

theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations

•5.Eticvs.Emic

–Bothcomefromthesuffixesofphoneticsandphonemics.

–Thedifferencesoftheirmeaningsaretheabstractionsofthedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonemics.

–Phonetics:

studiesthephysicalproperties（acoustic,articulatory）ofspeechsounds

–Phonemics:

relatingtophoneme,functional/distinctiveaspect

IntroductiontoPhonetics

Outline

•PartI:

Thedistinctionofphonetics&phonology

•PartII:

Thebranchesofphonetics

•PartIII:

Speechorgans

•PartIV:

IPAandphonetictranscription

•PartV:

Consonantsandvowels

•

•PartIThedistinctionsofphonetics&phonology

•Bothofthemarethestudiesofspeechsounds.

•

•Phonetics:

•Howspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived,physicalaspect

•

•Phonology:

•Thestudyofsoundsystemsoflanguage

•Principlesgoverningthewaysoundsareorganized

•PartIIThebranchesofphonetics

•Articulatoryphonetics:

•Productionofspeechsounds

•

•Acousticphonetics:

•Transmission,physics

•

•Auditory/perceptualphonetics:

•Perceptionofspeechsounds

•PartIIISpeechorgans

•Vocaltract

•Oralcavity:

•Mouth:

lips

•Tongue:

tip,blade,front,back,root

•Palate:

hard,soft,uvula

•Teeth:

upper,lower

•Nasalcavity

•Pharynx

•

•PartIV:

IPAandphonetictranscription

•

•IPAisanabbreviationfor

•InternationalPhoneticAssociation

•InternationalPhoneticAlphabet

•

•Phonetictranscriptions

•

•Phonetictranscriptions

•Broad

•Narrow

•

•

•PartVConsonantsandVowels

•

•Consonants:

constrictingtodivert,impede,orshutofftheair

•

•Vowels:

withoutsuchobstruction

•

•Semi-vowel/semi-consonant:

yet,wet,hot

•Consonants

•Thecategoriesofconsonants:

•

•Mannersofarticulation:

thewaytheairpassesthrough

•

•Placesofarticulation:

wheretheobstructionofairtakesplace

•Mannersofarticulation

•

•Stop（plosive）（爆破音）:

•Oralstops/stops:

[p,b,t,d,k,g]

•Nasalstops/nasals:

[m,n,ŋ]

•

•

•Fricative（摩擦音）:

•[f,v,θ,ð,s,z,∫,З,h]

•

•Approximant（流音）:

[w,r,j]

•

•Lateral（边音）:

[l]

•

•Affricate（塞擦音）:

[t∫,dЗ,ts,dz,tr,dr]

•Placesofarticulation

•

•Bilabial:

[p,b,m,w]（pet,betmet,wet）

•

•Labiodental:

[f,v]（five,via）

•

•Dental:

[θ,ð]（thief,clothes）

•

•Alveolar:

[t,d,n,s,z,r,l]

•

•Postalveolar:

[∫,З,t∫,dЗ]

•

•Palatal:

[j]（yet,yes）

•

•Velar:

[k,g,ŋ],Chinese（he,和）

•ThedescriptionsofEnglishconsonants（RP）

•

•Voicing

•

•Representedby[+voiced]and[-voiced]

•

•（[+voiced]）:

/b/,/d/,……

•

•

•（[-voiced]）:

/p/,/t/,……

•[p]voicelessbilabialstop

•

•[b]voicedbilabialstop

•

•[s]voicedalveolarfricative

•

•[z]voicedalveolarfricative

•

•[t]voicelessalveolarstop

•

•[d]voicedalveolarstop

•

•[m]bilabialnasal

•

•[l]lateral

•

•[j]palatalapproximant

•

•[h]glottalfricative

•Vowels

•Criteriaofvoweldescription:

•

•Heightoftongueraising—high,mid,low

•

•Positionofthehighestpartofthetongue—front,central,back

•

•Lengthortensenessofthevowel—tenseorlax,longorshort

•

•Lip-rounding—roundedorunrounded

•Coarticulation

•

•Aphenomenonthatcertainsoundsareinfluencedbytheirneighbors.

•

•

•Coarticulationincludesanticipatory（right-to-left）andperseverative（left-to-right）coarticulation.

•Introductiontophonology

•Outline

•I.Phoneme

•

•II.Phonologicalprocess

•

•III.Distinctivefeatures

•

•IV.Syllable

•I.Phoneme

•

•Minimalpairs

•

•Phone,allophones,freevariants,complementarydistribution

•

•Aminimalpairisanytwowordsthat

•①Containthesamenumberofsound

•segments

•②Differinmeaning

•③Exhibitonlyonephoneticdifference

•E.g.:

pin&bin

•

•Phoneme:

•/i:

/,/i/,/e/,/a:

/,/u/,/u:

/,/t/,……

•Distinguishmeaning

•Smallestdistinctiveunitofsound

•

•Phones:

[p=],[ph],[t],[d],[f],[v]

•

•

•Allophones:

[p=,ph]ofthesamephoneme/p/

•

•①Phoneticallysimilar

•②Incomplementarydistribution

•Complementarydistribution

•

•

•/p/→[p=]/[s]___（speak）

•[ph]elsewhere（peak）

•

•/l/→[l]/___V（lead）

•[l]V___（deal）（darkl）

•

•Note:

Notallphonesincomplementarydistributionareallophones.

•

•[h]&[ŋ]

•

•[w]&[ŋ]?

•Freevariants:

•

•Ofthesamephoneme,thesamewordispronouncedindifferentways

•

•either[ai,i:

]

•direction[i,ai]

•IIPhonologicalprocess

•

•A→B/C（AchangestoBunderconditionC）

•

•A→B/D___

•

•A→B/___D

•

•A→B/D___E

•

•‘/’:

environmentinwhichchangetakesplace

•

•‘___’:

focusbar:

positionoftargetsegment

•Assimilation

•

•Regressive:

Nasalization（can）

•[-nasal]→[+nasal]/___[+nasal]

•

•Progressive:

Devoicing（beds,seats,cases）

•z→s/[–voiced,C]___

•

•

•Epenthesis:

ø→[ә]/sibilant___z

•Sibilants:

/s,z,∫,з,t∫,dз/）

•

•ø→[n]/[ә]___V

•（ahotel,anapple…）

•Ruleordering

•Thepluralformsofnouns

•

•/s/appearsaftervoicelesssounds

•

•/z/appearsaftervoicedsounds

•

•/әz/appearsaftersibilants

•（sibilants:

/s,z,∫,з,t∫,dз/）

•

•

•seat-sbed-scase-sword

•

•/si:

t+z//bed+z//keis+z/Input

•sN/AsDevoicing

•N/AN/AN/AEpenthesis

•si:

tsbedz*keissOutput

•

•/si:

t+z//bed+z//keis+z/Input

•N/AN/AәEpenthesis

•sN/AN/ADevoicing

•si:

tsbedzkeisәzOutput

•III.Distinctivefeatures

•

•Distinguishonephonemefromanother

•

•Binaryfeatures:

+/-

•

•Examples:

[+voiced]/b,d,g,z…/

•[+nasal]/m,n,ŋ/

•[-cons]/i:

e,a:

…/

•IV.Syllable

•Syllable=Onset+Rhyme

•

•Rhyme=Nucleus+Coda

•

•Example:

klasp

•（kl）---onset

•（asp）---rhym

•（a）---nucleus

•（sp）---coda

•

•English:

（（（C）C）C）V（（（（C）C）C）C）

•

•Chinese:

（C）V（C）

•

•

•

•