语言学重点笔记.docx

1、语言学重点笔记Outline Micro-linguistics Macro-linguistics Interdisciplinary studiesMicro-linguistics: branches -in terms of linguistics itself Phonetics: sounds Phonology: sound patterns Morphology: word formation Syntax: sentences Semantics: linguistic meaning Pragmatics: meaning in useMacro-linguistics-c

2、oncerning the whole world Sociolinguistics (& gender difference) Psycholinguistics: slip of the tongue Neurolinguistics: Brocas area Computational linguistics Philosophical linguistics Anthropological linguisticsInterdisciplinary studies -relating to other objects Stylistics: linguistics and literat

3、ure Applied linguistics: linguistics and foreign language teachingThe History of LinguisticsHistory of linguistics(1) 4th-5th century B. C.: Indian linguistics (2) 2nd-3rd century B. C.: Greek linguistics(3) 14th-17th century: Descartes(4) 18th-19th century: Humboldt(5) 1st half of 20th century: Str

4、ucturalist(6) 2nd half of 20th century: Generative & Chomsky, systemic-functional & HallidayThe latest development Case grammar The generative semantics Optimality theory (OT) Cognitive grammar Discourse analysis under the framework of functional grammarImportant Concepts & DistinctionsOutline Part

5、I: What is language? Part II: Design features of language Part III: Functions of language Part IV: Important distinctionsPart I: What is language? What is language? Language is used for communication. To understand what language is, we must first make clear what communication is and how language is

6、used in communication.The definition of language Language is usually defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols designed for the purpose of human communication. Part II Design features of language Design features: The features that define our human languages. 1. Arbitrariness: The forms of lingu

7、istic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. E.g. book /buk/-书 (shu)-the entity 2. Duality Two levels of structure Sounds-syllables-morphemes-words-sentences-texts/discourses /k, ai, n, d, n, i:, s/ - /kaind, ni:s/-(kind, ness)-kindness-her kindness warms him- 3. Creativity Resourceful

8、 New sentences, new meanings Endless sentences Important feature to separate human language from animal language. 4. Displacement: Not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Part III Functions of language 1. Informative / ideational: The facts and experience of the world, includi

9、ng the inner world. 2. Interpersonal Performative Emotive/expressive Phatic 3. Recreational/poetic: Cross talk 4. Metalingual: Language is used to talk about itself, to create terms (case, person) to discuss itself.Part IV: Distinctions 1. Descriptive vs. prescriptive How things are vs. how things o

10、ught to be Linguistics should try to discover and record, not to prescribe. A man says “He aint a good guy.” We should say “He isnt a good guy.” Do not say “X”. (I is a good girl.) People do not say “X”. (I is a good girl.) 2. Synchronic vs. diachronic A fixed instant as its point of observation. Th

11、rough the course of its history. 3. Langue & parole Langue: Linguistic competence of the speaker The lexicon, grammar, and phonology Not complete in any speaker Only existing perfectly within a collectivity Social, essential Parole: The actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances), actual us

12、e of language Individual, accidental 4. Competence & performance Competence: a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules, an ideal speakers knowledge of language Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations 5. Etic vs. Emic Both come from the suffixes of phoneti

13、cs and phonemics. The differences of their meanings are the abstractions of the differences between phonetics and phonemics. Phonetics: studies the physical properties (acoustic, articulatory) of speech sounds Phonemics: relating to phoneme, functional / distinctive aspectIntroduction to PhoneticsOu

14、tline Part I: The distinction of phonetics & phonology Part II: The branches of phonetics Part III: Speech organs Part IV: IPA and phonetic transcription Part V: Consonants and vowels Part I The distinctions of phonetics & phonology Both of them are the studies of speech sounds. Phonetics: How speec

15、h sounds are made, transmitted and received, physical aspect Phonology: The study of sound systems of language Principles governing the way sounds are organized Part II The branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics: Production of speech sounds Acoustic phonetics: Transmission, physics Auditory/pe

16、rceptual phonetics: Perception of speech sounds Part III Speech organs Vocal tract Oral cavity: Mouth: lips Tongue: tip, blade, front, back, root Palate: hard, soft, uvula Teeth: upper, lower Nasal cavity Pharynx Part IV: IPA and phonetic transcription IPA is an abbreviation for International Phonet

17、ic Association International Phonetic Alphabet Phonetic transcriptions Phonetic transcriptions Broad Narrow Part V Consonants and Vowels Consonants: constricting to divert, impede, or shut off the air Vowels: without such obstruction Semi-vowel/semi-consonant: yet, wet, hot Consonants The categories

18、 of consonants: Manners of articulation: the way the air passes through Places of articulation: where the obstruction of air takes place Manners of articulation Stop (plosive)（爆破音）: Oral stops/stops: p, b, t, d, k, g Nasal stops/nasals: m, n, Fricative（摩擦音）: f, v, , , s, z, , , h Approximant（流音）: w,

19、 r, j Lateral（边音）: l Affricate（塞擦音）: t, d, ts, dz, tr, dr Places of articulation Bilabial: p, b, m, w (pet, bet met, wet) Labiodental: f, v (five, via) Dental: , (thief, clothes) Alveolar: t, d, n, s, z, r, l Postalveolar: , , t, d Palatal: j (yet, yes) Velar:k, g, , Chinese (he, 和) The descriptions

20、 of English consonants (RP) Voicing Represented by +voiced and -voiced (+voiced): /b/, /d/, (-voiced): /p/, /t/, p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bilabial stop s voiced alveolar fricative z voiced alveolar fricative t voiceless alveolar stop d voiced alveolar stop m bilabial nasal l lateral j pala

21、tal approximant h glottal fricative Vowels Criteria of vowel description: Height of tongue raisinghigh, mid, low Position of the highest part of the tonguefront, central, back Length or tenseness of the voweltense or lax, long or short Lip-roundingrounded or unrounded Coarticulation A phenomenon tha

22、t certain sounds are influenced by their neighbors. Coarticulation includes anticipatory (right-to-left) and perseverative (left-to-right) coarticulation. Introduction to phonology Outline I. Phoneme II. Phonological process III. Distinctive features IV. Syllable I. Phoneme Minimal pairs Phone, allo

23、phones, free variants, complementary distribution A minimal pair is any two words that Contain the same number of sound segments Differ in meaning Exhibit only one phonetic difference E.g.: pin & bin Phoneme: /i:/, /i/, /e/, /a:/, /u/, /u:/, /t/, Distinguish meaning Smallest distinctive unit of soun

24、d Phones: p=, ph, t, d, f, v Allophones: p=, ph of the same phoneme /p/ Phonetically similar In complementary distribution Complementary distribution /p/ p=/s_ (speak) ph elsewhere (peak) /l/ l/_V (lead) lV_ (deal) (dark l) Note: Not all phones in complementary distribution are allophones. h & w & ?

25、 Free variants: Of the same phoneme, the same word is pronounced in different ways either ai, i: direction i, ai II Phonological process AB/C (A changes to B under condition C) AB/D_ AB/_D AB/D_E /: environment in which change takes place _: focus bar: position of target segment Assimilation Regress

26、ive: Nasalization (can) -nasal +nasal /_ +nasal Progressive: Devoicing (beds, seats, cases) z s / voiced, C _ Epenthesis: / sibilant _ z Sibilants: /s, z, , , t, d/) n / _ V (a hotel, an apple ) Rule ordering The plural forms of nouns /s/ appears after voiceless sounds /z/ appears after voiced sound

27、s /z/ appears after sibilants (sibilants: /s, z, , , t, d/) seat-s bed-s case-s word /si:t + z/ /bed + z/ /keis + z/ Input s N/A s Devoicing N/A N/A N/A Epenthesis si:ts bedz *keiss Output /si:t + z/ /bed + z/ /keis + z/ Input N/A N/A Epenthesis s N/A N/A Devoicing si:ts bedz keisz Output III. Disti

28、nctive features Distinguish one phoneme from another Binary features: +/- Examples: +voiced /b, d, g, z/ +nasal /m, n, / -cons /i:, e, a:/ IV. Syllable Syllable = Onset + Rhyme Rhyme = Nucleus + Coda Example: klasp (kl)-onset (asp)-rhym (a)-nucleus (sp)-coda English: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) Chinese: (C)V(C)