Murray Fulton教授 项目分析与贴现率加拿大萨斯卡彻温大学农经系合作研究中心.docx
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MurrayFulton教授项目分析与贴现率加拿大萨斯卡彻温大学农经系合作研究中心
项目分析与贴现率
Murray Fulton教授
加拿大萨斯卡彻温大学农经系、合作研究中心
引言 Introduction
前两讲关于肥料经济学的讨论论述了为获得最大利润,用于不同作物的各种肥料施用量的决策原则,其共同的主题是,肥料的最佳分配发生在肥料单位用量的增加所带来的边际收益等于由此而产生的边际成本的时候。
这一原则的得出是基于一个假设条件,即成本和收益发生在同一个时期。
In the two lectures on the economics of fertilization, I presented a framework for making decisions about the amounts of various fertilizers to use on different crops in order to maximize profits. A common theme in both lectures was that an optimal allocation of fertilizer would take place when the marginal benefit of applying another unit of fertilizer equaled the marginal cost of this additional unit. Implicit in the development of this rule was the assumption that the costs and benefits occurred at the same time.
然而,众所周知,项目的成本和收益很少同时发生。
在许多情况下,费用得现在支付,而收益则要一段时间后才能获得。
此外,一旦开始有了收益,往往会持续一段时间。
It is well known, however, that the costs and benefits associated with projects rarely occur at the same point in time. For example, in many cases, the cost is incurred now, while the benefits may take some time to occur. In addition, when the benefits do occur, they may last for a period of time.
例如,新建一个化肥厂需要现在投资,而收益却要等到正式投产后才能获得,且投产后头几年的收益会比以后少,因为新增的产量需要一定的时间才能充分进入分销系统。
同样地,一个对农民进行平衡施肥培训的推广项目,涉及到大量的创办费,而一旦进行了投资,相当长的一段时间内都能从中获益。
而且与建肥料厂一样,项目实施头几年的收益可能会比较小。
这是因为,新技术和措施刚出现时通常不容易被采用,虽说少部分农民也许会先采用,大多数却愿意等等,看这种新方法是否真有好处。
最后一个例子与肥料施用有关,施用磷肥和钾肥的经济效益在施肥当季并不能全部发挥出来,而是在以后的各季中能继续发挥作用。
For example, the construction of a new fertilizer plant means incurring a cost now. The benefits, however, do not occur until the plant is operating. Even then, the benefits in the early years are likely to be less than in later years, when the additional production can be fully integrated into the distribution system. In a similar fashion, the development of an extension program to educate farmers about the benefits of balanced fertilizer involves a major initial cost. Once this cost is incurred, the benefits are likely to last for a substantial period of time. In addition, as with the fertilizer plant, the benefits are likely to be smaller in the early years. This is because new techniques and practices are not usually adopted when they first emerge. While some of the farmers might be early adopters, the majority like to wait and see if the new ideas prove to be advantageous. A final example involves fertilizer application. The benefits of potash and phosphate are not completely realized in the year the fertilizers are applied, but instead continue on for a number of years.
解决收益和成本不同时发生的一个方法是使用贴现率率。
贴现率率提供了一个比较目前的成本与第二年或十年后的收益的方法。
One way to take account of situations where the benefits and costs do not occur at the same time is to use discounting. Discounting provides a way of comparing a cost today with a benefit next year or ten years from now.
本讲座的主题是贴现率率。
这一概念被用来分析当成本和收益发生在不同时期时,某个项目的经济可行性。
首先分析贴现率率和通货膨胀在测定项目的经济可行性中所起的作用;然后分析预算限制对项目选择的影响;最后将讨论项目实施后的受益者和损失者。
The focus of this lecture is discounting. This concept is used to examine the economic feasibility of a project where the costs and benefits occur at different points in time. The role the discount rate plays in determining the economic feasibility of a project is examined, as is the role of inflation. The effect of budget constraints on project selection will also be examined. The lecture concludes with some observations on who benefits and who loses as a result of projects being undertaken.
贴现率 Discounting
介绍贴现率概念最好是举例说明。
表1是一个假设项目的成本和收益。
假定该项目是个推广项目或是新品种开发项目。
如表所示,成本和收益不发生在同一个时期。
The best way to introduce the notion of discounting is through the use of an example. Table 1 presents the costs and benefits associated with a hypothetical project. This project might be an extension program or the development of a new seed variety. As can be seen, the costs and benefits do not occur at the same time.
(表:
表1项目在一定时期内的收益和成本 )
Year年
Benefits 收益
Costs成本
Net Benefits纯收益
1
0
100
-100
2
7
30
-23
3
8
8
4
10
10
5
15
15
6
20
20
7
25
25
8
30
30
9
30
30
10
30
30
Total总计
175
130
45
比较发生在不同时期的成本和收益最容易的方法是简单地把它们加起来,表1的最后一排为成本和收益相加的结果。
从表上看来,该项目似乎在经济上是合理的,因为收益比成本大45。
The easiest way to compare the costs and benefits that occur at different points in time is to simply add them together. The last row in Table 1 shows the results of adding the costs and the benefits together. As can be seen, this project appears to be one that is economical to undertake, since the benefits exceed the costs by 45.
这里我很谨慎地用“似乎是经济的”,因为有人会辩驳说,直接比较发生在现在的成本与发生在将来的收益是不合适的。
原因之一可能是通货膨胀。
如果经济中存在着通货膨胀,那么;将来的一元钱就不会有和今天的一元钱同样的购买力。
本讲随后将对通货膨胀进行更详细的讨论。
I deliberately use the phrase "appears to be economical" because it can be argued that it is not proper to directly compare the benefits that occur in the future with the costs that occur now. One reason might be inflation. If inflation is present in the economy, then one yuan in the future does not have the same purchasing power as one yuan today. The role of inflation will be examined in more detail later in this lecture.
即使我们假设没有通货膨胀,也并不解决问题,因为还存在着另一个问题,即将来的一元钱常常不如今天的一元钱值钱。
原因是,如果今天有一元钱,它可以用于很多方面,如投资一个项目以获得资本回收率,或者用来购买少了这一元钱便无力支付的东西。
因此,今天没有这一元钱意味着放弃了一个机会,这可能是将来多挣一元钱的机会,或者是现在购买某种东西而从中受益的机会,而不是等到将来。
用经济术语来说,这里存在着一个机会成本。
Assuming that there is no inflation, however, does not solve the problem. Another problem exists, namely that one yuan in the future is often not worth as much as one yuan today. The reason is that if the yuan was available today, it could be used in some other fashion. It could be invested in another project that earns a rate of return, or it could be used to purchase something which otherwise could not be afforded. Not having the yuan today, therefore, means an opportunity has been given up. This may be the opportunity to earn additional yuan in the future, or it may be the opportunity to receive the benefits of a purchase now rather than later. In economic terms, an opportunity cost exists.
这个机会成本的存在说明,人们不会用今天的一元钱换取一年以后的一元钱,如果有人这样做了,他会失去某些东西。
因此,人们只愿意用少于今天的一元来换得一年后的一元钱,换句话说,将来的一元与今天的一元并不等值。
The presence of this opportunity cost means that people will not trade one yuan today for one yuan a year from now. If somebody was to give up one yuan today in exchange for one yuan a year from now, they would be losing something. As a result, people are only willing to give up an amount that is less than one yuan today in exchange for one yuan a year from now. Another way of saying this is that one yuan in the future is not worth as much as one yuan today.
某一东西从现在到将来一定时间价值减低的过程叫贴现,贬值的比率称为贴现率,如上面所说的,贴现率的概念与资本回收率有关。
为了更好地理解贴现率,先讨论一下资本回收率和复利。
The devaluing of things obtained in the future is known as discounting, while the rate at which things are devalued is known as the discount rate. As was shown above, the notion of discounting can be related to rates of return. To obtain a better understanding of discounting, it is useful to first consider rates of return and compounding.
假如,资本回收率为10%,也就是说,今天投资1元,一年以后可得到1.10元,这1.10元是用最初的1元投资乘以系数1.10而得出的。
如用这1.10元再投资,再过一年(即投资第二年)可得到1.21元(1.21=1.10(1.10)=1.102),如再投资,第三年可得1.331元(1.331=1.21(1.10)=1.103)。
For example, suppose a rate of return of ten percent can be earned. This means the investment of one yuan today results in 1.10 yuan a year from now. The value of 1.10 is obtained by multiplying the initial investment of one yuan by a factor of 1.10. If this 1.10 yuan is reinvested, then one year later (i.e., in the second year from the original investment), it will be worth 1.21 (1.21=1.10(1.10)=1.102). The reinvestment of this amount will result in 1.331 yuan (1.331=1.21(1.10)=1.103) in the third year.
以此类推,T年后,1元的投资可得到的价值为
VT=1.0(1.10)T
其中,VT是T年后的投资价值,(1.10)表示资本回收率为10%。
一元钱随着时间的推移而增长为VT的过程称为复利过程。
By extending this process, the value of a one yuan investment T years in the future (VT) can be written as
VT=1.0(1.10)T
In the above expression, VT is the value of the investment in year T, while the term (1.10) indicates the rate of return is ten percent. The process by which one yuan grows over time to reach VT is known as compounding.
一般地说,如果资本回收率为i(i为百分数),那么,T年后1元投资的价值为
VT=1.0(1+i)T
其中,(1+i)T称为增长因素。
表2表示利率为2.5%、5.0%、7.5%和10%时,1元投资10年后的增值或复利(注意,如果i=5.0%,那(1+i)=1.05)。
图1是表2的图形化。
注意复利的结果使最初的投资成指数增长。
More generally, if the rate of return is given by i (i is expressed in percentage terms), then the value of a one yuan investment T years in the future is given by
VT=1.0(1+i)T
The expression (1+i)T is called the growth factor. Table 2 shows how a one yuan investment grows or compounds over a ten year period at interest rates of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 percent (note that if i=5.0 percent, then(1+i)=1.05). Figure 1 graphs the values in Table 2. It is important to observe that compounding results in exponential growth of the original investment.
(表:
表2 对不同的回收率,一元钱投资在一定时期内的增值 )
Year (T) 年
Rate of Return (i) 回收率
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
0
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1
1.025
1.050
1.075
1.100
2
1.051
1.103
1.156
1.210
3
1.077
1.158
1.242
1.331
4
1.104
1.216
1.335
1.464
5
1.131
1.276
1.436
1.611
6
1.160
1.340
1.543
1.772
7
1.189
1.407
1.659
1.949
8
1.218
1.477
1.783
2.144
9
1.249
1.551
1.917
2.358
10
1.280
1.629
2.061
2.594
注释:
Growth Factor=(1+i)T
(图:
图1 不同回收率下一元钱随时间的增值)
贴现率与上面所说的复利过程正好相反。
假如某人一年后得到1元钱,这1元钱现在值多少呢?
如果贴现率为5%,那一年后的1元钱为今天的0.952元(0.952=1/1.05)。
如果某人两年后得到1元钱,以贴现率率为5%计算,那1元钱相当于今天的0.907元(0.907=0.952/1.05=1/(1.05)2)。
Discounting turns the compounding process described above completely around. Suppose a person is offered one yuan a year from now. How much is this one yuan worth today?
If the discount fate is five percent, then the value today of one yuan a year from now is 0.952 yuan, where 0.952=1/1.05. If a person is of