ProfessorPaulBloom:
Whatwe'vebeentalkingaboutsofarinthecoursearehumanuniversals,whateverybodyshares.So,we'vebeentalkingaboutlanguage,aboutrationality,aboutperception,abouttheemotions,aboutuniversalsofdevelopment,andwe'vebeentalkingaboutwhatpeopleshare.Buthonestly,whatalotofusareveryinterestediniswhywe'redifferentandthenatureofthesedifferencesandtheexplanationforthem.Andthat'swhatwe'llturntotoday.
Sofirst,we'lldiscusshowarepeopledifferent,differenttheoriesaboutwhatmakesyoudifferentinapsychologicalwayfromthepersonsittingnexttoyou,andthenwe'llreviewdifferenttheoriesaboutwhypeoplearedifferent.Andthisistheclasswhichisgoingtobotherthemostpeople.It'snotdualism.It'snotevolution.It'sthisbecausethescientificfindingsonhumanpsychologicaldifferencesare,tomanyofus,shockingandunbelievable.AndIwilljusttrytopersuadeyoutotakethemseriously.
Okay.So,howarepeopledifferent?
Well,there'sallsortsofways.Yoursexualidentity--Itisatthecoreofyourbeingforalmostallofuswhetheryou'remaleorfemale.Howwerefertoyouinlanguage,whatpronounweuse,isindexedonhowwe--onyour--onhow--whetheryou'remaleorfemaleandrelatedtothatthoughimperfectlyisyoursexualorientation,whoyou'reattractedto.Thequestionofwhysomeofusthinkofourselvesasmalesandothersasfemales,andthequestionofwhysomeofuswouldideallywanttohavesexwithmales,otherswithfemales,otherswithboth,andthenafewotherswhohavehardertodefinedesires,issuchagoodquestionthatwe'regoingtotalkaboutitafterspringbreakwhileallthesexualdesirehasbeenspentandyoucouldfocuson[laughter]onascientificdiscussionofthis--notthatIrecommendyoudothatonspringbreak.
Howhappyareyou?
Thisisalsosuchagoodtopicit'sgoingtogetitsownclass.Theverylastclassofthesemesterisdevotedtohappinessandthequestionofwhatmakespeoplehappy,whatmakespeopleunhappy,andwhatmakespeopledifferintheirhappiness.IfIaskedyoutorankhowhappyyouarefromascaleof1to10,thenumberswoulddifferacrossthisroom.Andthere'sdifferenttheoriesastowhy.Yoursuccessandfailureinlife--Thisissomewhatinterestingbecauseyoucouldstudythisinmoreorlessobjectiveways.Wedon'thavetoaskpeople.Wecouldlookatyourrelationships,howtheybegin,howtheyend,yourjobsatisfaction.Wecouldlookatyourcriminalrecords.Someofyouaregoingtoseetime.Mostwillnot.Someofyouwillgetintolittletroublesallthroughyourlife.Someofyoualreadyhaveseentheinsideofapolicestation,possiblyalineup.Otherscouldn'tgonearsuchathing.Whatdeterminesthat?
Andattherootofallhumandifferencesaretwomainfactors.Andso,Iwanttotalkaboutthetwomaininterestingfactors.Oneispersonality.Theotherisintelligence.Andthisiswhat--ThesearethedifferencesI'lltalkabouttodayfirstfromthestandpointofhowdowecharacterizethem,howdoweexplainthem,andthenfromthestandpointofwhythesedifferencesexistinthefirstplace.
Onewaytocharacterizepersonalityisintermsofpeople'sstylewithdealingwith--indealingwiththeworldandparticularlytheirstylewithdealing--indealingwithotherpeople.So,youtakeasimplecharacteryouknowofandyoucouldtalkaboutthatperson'spersonality.Youcouldtalkaboutitintermsofbeingimpulsive,irresponsible,sometimeslazy,good-hearted.Youcouldcomparethatperson'spersonalitywithotherpeople'spersonalitiessuchasmycolleaguewhogaveatalklastclass.He'swonderful.He'sresponsibleandreliableandverykind[laughter]anddifferentfromHomer.Andso,thisdifferenceisadifferenceinpersonality.
Now,whenwetalkaboutpersonalitywe'retalkingaboutsomethingelseaswell.We'retalkingaboutastabletraitacrosssituationsandtime.So,ifallofasuddenthepersonnexttoyoukindofsmacksyouinthehead,youmightbeangrybutwewouldn'tcallthat"personality"becausethat'ssomethingthat'saresultofasituation.We'dallfeelthatwayinthatsituation.It's"personality"ifyouwalkaroundallthetimeangry.That'dbeastabletrait.That'dbesomethingyoucarryaroundwithyouandthat'swhatwemeanbypersonality.
Now,howdowescientificallycharacterizedifferencesinpersonality?
Andit'sadeepquestion.There'sbeenalotofattemptstodoso.Anyassessmenthas--Anygoodassessmenthastosatisfytwoconditions.Andthesearetermswhicharegoingtoshowupalloverpsychologicalresearchbutit'sparticularlyrelevantforthissortofmeasure.Oneis"reliability."Reliabilitymeansthereisnotmeasurementerror.Andonecrudewaytothinkaboutreliabilityis,atestisreliableifyoutestthesamepersonatdifferenttimesandyougetthesameresult.MybathroomscaleisreliableifwheneverIstandonit,itgivesmemoreorlessthesamenumber.It'snotreliableifit'soffbytenpoundsinthecourseofaday.Similarly,ifIgiveyouapersonalitytestnowanditsaysthatyou'reanxiousanddefensive,well--andthengiveittoyoutomorrowanditsaysyou'recalmandopenminded,it'snotareliabletest.So,reliableissomethingyoucouldtrustovertime.
"Validity"issomethingdifferent.Validityisthatyourtestmeasureswhatit'ssupposedtomeasure.So,validitymeansit'ssortofagoodtest.Forgetabouthowreliableitis.Doesittapwhatyou'reinterestedin?
So,forexample,supposeIdetermineyourintelligencebythedateofyourbirth.IfigureoutwhatdayyouwerebornandIhaveatheorythat,fromthat,predictshowsmartyouare.That'smyintelligencetest,thedateofyourbirth.MaybepeopleborninJanuaryarethedumbest,peopleborninDecemberarethesmartest.Isthat--IwasbornonChristmasEve.[laughter]Isthatareliabletest?
Yes,it'sawonderfullyreliabletest.I'lltestyoutoday;I'lltestyoutomorrow;I'lltestyounextyear;I'lltestyouthedayyoudie;I'llgetthesameIQscore.Isitavalidtest?
It'sajoke.It'sabsolutelynotavalidtest.Ithasnothingtodowithintelligence.Butyounoticedthesearetwodifferentthings.Somethingcanbereliablebutnotvalidandsomethingcanbevalidandnotreliable.
Now,therearenoshortageofpersonalitytests.Youcouldgetthemallovertheplaceincludingontheweb.So,Itookonerecently.Itook"whichsuperheroareyou?
"[laughter]Andit'saseriesofquestionsdeterminingwhatsuperheroyouare.Youcouldtakethisyourselfifyouwantto.Thesamewebpage,bytheway,offersyouatestinwhetheryou're"hot"ornot.We'lldiscussthatlater.AndwhenIdidthis[laughter]ittoldmeIwasBatman[laughter]and"youaredark,lovegadgets,andhavevowedtohelptheinnocentnotsufferthepainyouhaveendured."Now,thehonest--[laughter]Now,tobehonestthough,it'sneitherreliablenorvalid.WhenIfirstdidthetestIcameupas"TheIncredibleHulk."Ithenchangedmyanswersabitandwas"WonderWoman."[laughter]Andfinally,outoffrustration,IcarefullytailoredmyanswerssoIwouldbeBatman.ButthefactthatIcandothat,well,raisesquestionsaboutboththereliabilityofthismeasureanditsvalidity.
Hereisanexample鈥�arealworldexample.Thisis,inblackandwhiteform,aversionoftheRorschachtest,theRorschachinkblottest.HowmanypeoplehaveheardoftheRorschachtest?
Okay.Isthereanybodyherewhohasactually,inanysortofsituation,takenaRorschachtest?
Somepeoplescatteredintheroomhavetakenthem.Itwasoriginallyusedonlyforpsychiatriccasesbutthenbecameextremelycommon.AbouteightypercentofclinicalpsychologistsclaimtouseitandmostgraduateprogramsintheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationwhoareaccreditedteachit.Catholicseminariesuseitforpeoplewhowanttojointheseminary.
ItwasinventedbyaguynamedHermanRorschach.Hedevotedhisentirelifetotheinkblottest.Hisnicknamewhenhewasateenager鈥�Iamnotkiddingyou鈥�was"Inkblot."[laughter]Andtheideaisbylookingattheseinkblotsandthenseeingwhatsomebodysaysyougetgreatinsightsintothenatureoftheirpersonality,intowhattheyare.Anybodywanttotryit?
Comeon.Yes.Whatdoyousee?
Student:
Iseetwopeopleholdinghandspressedtogether.
ProfessorPaulBloom:
Twopeopleholdinghandspressedtogether.Verygood.Anybodyhaveadifferentreading?
Yes,inback.Yes.Yes.
Student:
Dancingbears.
ProfessorPaulBloom:
Dancingbears.Okay.Good.[laughter]Good.Okay.Igottowriteyournamedown--[laughs][laughter]reportyoutohealth--No.Dancingbears,verygood.Anybodyelse?
Oneother.Yes.
Student:
Amaninaskimask.
ProfessorPaulBloom:
Amaninaskimask.Well,itturnsoutthattherearerightanswersandwronganswerstotheRorschachtest.Accordingtothetest,andthisisfromarealRorschachtest,"itisimportanttoseetheblotastwohumanfigures,usuallyfemalesorclowns."Goodworkoverthere."Ifyoudon't,it'sseenasasignyouhaveproblemsrelatingtopeople."[laughter]Ifyouwanttogofor"acaveentrance"or"butterfly"or"vagina,"that'salsookay.[laughter]
Now,theRorschachtestistranscendentlyuseless.Ithasbeenstudiedandexploredanditisasuselessasthrowingdice.Itisasuselessastealeaves.Nonetheless,peopleloveitandit'susedallovertheplace.Itisusedforexampleinchildcustodycases.Ifyouhavebrokenupwithyourpartnerandyouguysarequarrelingoverwhogetstokeepthekids,youmightfindyourselfinashrink'sofficelookingatthis.Andi
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