Tourism and Environment.docx

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TourismandEnvironment

TourismandEnvironment

RalfBuckley

InternationalCentreforEcotourismResearch,GoldCoastCampus,GriffithUniversity,

Queensland4222,Australia;email:

r.buckley@griffith.edu.au

Annu.Rev.Environ.Resour.2011.36:

397–416

FirstpublishedonlineasaReviewinAdvanceon

July29,2011

TheAnnualReviewofEnvironmentandResources

isonlineatenviron.annualreviews.org

Thisarticle’sdoi:

10.1146/annurev-environ-041210-132637

Copyright_c2011byAnnualReviews.

Allrightsreserved

1543-5938/11/1121-0397$20.00

Keywords

recreation,transport,nationalparks,climatechange,management

Abstract

Tourismisalarge,diffuseglobalindustry.Environmentalaspectsare

littlestudied,with∼1,500publicationsintotal.Impactsrangefrom

globalcontributionstoclimatechangeandoceanpollutiontolocalized

effectsonendangeredplantandanimalspeciesinprotectedareas.Environmental

managementislimitedmorebylackofadoptionthanbylack

oftechnology.Governmentregulationismoreeffectivethanindustrybased

ecocertification.Indevelopingnations,tourismcancontributeto

conservationbyprovidingpoliticalandfinancialsupportforpublicprotected

areaagenciesandforconservationonprivateandcommunally

ownedlands.Thisisimportantinbuildingresiliencetoclimatechange.

Indevelopednations,sucheffectsareoutweighedbytheimpactsof

recreationaluseandbypoliticalpressuresfromtourismpropertydevelopers.

Theseinteractionsdeserveresearchinbothnaturalandsocial

sciences.Researchprioritiesincludemoresophisticatedrecreation

ecologyaswellaslegalandsocialframeworksforconservationtourism.

397

Annu.Rev.Environ.Resourc.2011.36:

397-416.Downloadedfromwww.annualreviews.org

byUniversityofBritishColumbiaon04/04/12.Forpersonaluseonly.

Contents

INTRODUCTION..................398

NATURE-BASEDPRODUCTS.....398

Mainstream,Adventure,

Consumptive,and

NonconsumptiveSubsectors.....398

GeographyandLandTenure.......400

ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS

ANDMANAGEMENT...........401

Accommodation,Resorts,

andEcocertification.............401

Travel,ClimateChange,and

IndirectImplications............402

ImpactsofOutdoorTourismin

AreasofHighConservation

Value..........................403

ManagingTouristImpactsin

ProtectedAreas.................405

TOURISMCONTRIBUTING

TOCONSERVATION...........406

DISCUSSIONAND

CONCLUSIONS.................408

INTRODUCTION

Tourismisbothacategoryofhumanbehavior,

andthemultitrillion-dollarindustrythat

caterstoit.Researchontourismandenvironment

crossesawiderangeofsocialandnatural

sciencedisciplines,andkeycontributionsare

scatteredacrossmanyfields.

Traditionsintourismresearchareverydifferent

fromthoseinenvironmentalscience.

Tourismisalargeandlong-establishedindustry,

buttourismresearchisrelativelysmall,new,

insularandinwardlooking,withcompetition

betweencliquesanddebatebetweendevotees

ofdifferentmethods（1–2）.Thetraditionsof

tourismresearchincludeastrongemphasison

books,asacomplementtojournalarticles,to

presentprimaryresearchdataaswellasreviews.

Withratherfewexceptions（3）,environmental

aspectsgetasomewhatshortshriftinthe

highest-impacttourismjournals.Thisapplies

evenforissuessuchasclimatechange,which

arecriticaltothefutureshapeandsurvivalof

thetourismindustry.Muchofthemostsignificant

andrelevantresearchintourismand

environmenthasbeenpublishedinjournalsof

conservationandeconomics.

Thereare∼1,500individualacademicpublications

onvariousaspectsoftourismand

environment（3,4）,mostofthempublished

withinthepast25years.Indeed,thereareover

600articlesanalyzingrecreationaldisturbances

tobirdsandotherterrestrialwildlife（5）.There

areseveralvolumesonecotourism,differing

considerablyinapproachandtechnicaldetail

（4,6,7）.Relatedtothesearetextsonrecreation

ecology（5,8,9）,adventuretourism（10,11）,

andparkandwildernessmanagement（12,13）.

Therearebooksonsustainabletourismandresponsible

tourism（14）,orientedlargelytoward

socialandeconomicconsiderations.Thereis

limitedresearchonenvironmentalplanning

andimpactassessmentforlarge-scaleormainstream

fixed-sitetourismdevelopment（15）.

Thereareseveralbooksontourismandclimate

change（16,17）.

Tourismusesnatureaspartofitsproducts

（7,18）;itcreatesenvironmentalimpacts（5,9）;

anditcansometimescontributetoconservation

（6,19）.Thisreviewconsidersthesethree

interactionsinturn.Thus,itstartswithconsiderations

ofmostconcernintourismresearch

andendswiththoseofgreaterinterestinenvironmental

research.Itcitesaboutone-tenth

ofrelevantliteraturedirectly,emphasizing

large-scalereviews,classiccontributions,the

mostrecentarticlesineachsubtopic,and,

wherepossible,thehighest-rankedjournals.

NATURE-BASEDPRODUCTS

Mainstream,Adventure,Consumptive,

andNonconsumptiveSubsectors

Peopletraveltovisitotherpeopleandother

places,andiconattractionsincludenatureas

wellasculture:

nationalparksaswellasfamous

buildings.Aboutafifthoftheglobaltourism

andtravelindustry,wortharoundatrillion

U.S.dollarsayear,dependsheavilyonoutdoor

398Buckley

Annu.Rev.Environ.Resourc.2011.36:

397-416.Downloadedfromwww.annualreviews.org

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naturalenvironments（4）.Incountriessuchas

Kenya,CostaRica,andNewZealand,without

alargeurbantourismsubsector,theproportion

isuptofour-fifths.Manytouristactivities

neednaturalenvironments（18,20）.Touroperators

combinecomponentsintopurchasable

products,packagingthemtoappealtoparticular

marketsegments.Thecomponentsinclude

travelandtransport,accommodationandcatering,

andactivitiesandentertainment;andeach

hasenvironmentalaspects（4）.Tourismalsoincludes

independenttravelers,notablyfamilies

onholidayintheirowncars,andthesetravelers

mayalsoselectamixtureofnature-based

andurbancomponents.

Thereisthusanextensiveresearchliterature

ontouristdemographicsandmotivations

（21,22）,ontourismmarketing（23）,andonthe

economicscaleofvariousactivitysubsectorseither

locallyorglobally（4）.Thereisalsoarather

morelimitedliteratureonthedetailsofproduct

designandcompetitivefine-tuning（11）.

Environmentalcomponentsofthese,however,

areratherlimitedbothinpracticeandin

analysis.

Asmeasuredbyeconomicexpenditure,the

largestnature-basedsubsectorsarethosethat

includeextensiveaccommodationandactivity

infrastructureaswellasassociatedamenitymigration

andresidentialpropertydevelopment

（24）.Inthesecases,thenaturalenvironmentis

usedprincipallyasanoutdoorplayground.The

mainexamplesaretheskiindustry,themarina

industry,andthebeachtourismsector.Inresearch

terms,theseareconsideredasmassor

mainstreamtourism.Skiresortsrelyonretail

shoppingprecinctsandresidentiallandsales

aswellasonliftticketsales,buttheirposition

andlayoutisdictatedbyterrainandclimate,

andmanyareonpubliclandoriginally

allocatedforforestryorconservation.Indeveloped

nations,beachandmarinatourismare

largelyintegratedintocoastalcities.Indeveloping

nations,themainmodelistheenclave

resort,whichsometimesgrowtoresorttowns.

Althoughmosttourismenterprisesareprivately

owned,insomecountriestheyareowneddirectly

bygovernmentagencies.Inothers,they

areownedprivatelybygovernmentofficials

throughsystemsofpatronage（25）.

Manyoutdoortourismactivitiesalsoinvolve

largenumbersofparticipants,butlessinfrastructure

andassociatedexpenditure.Mostare

availableeitherasindependentself-supported

recreationorascommercialtourismproducts.

Theymaybeconsideredinthreecategories,

commonlylabeledasconsumptive,adventure,

and（nonconsumptive）naturebased.Allofthese

mayhavemarineaswellasterrestrialcomponents

（26）.Consumptivenature-basedtourism

referstorecreationalhuntingandfishing

（10,11,27）.

Adventuretourismusesoutdoornaturalenvironments

asasettingforexcitement-based

recreationratherthanappreciationofnature

（10,11）.Thereis,however,considerableoverlap

bothinindividualmotivationsandinthe

designofcommercialproducts,whichofteninclude

nature-based,adventurous,andcultural

componentsinasingleproduct（4,28）.Watchingwildlife

canbeexcitingaswellaseducational

（10,11,29）,andmanyadventureactivitiestake

placeinspectacularlandscapes.Atleast45different

outdooractivitiesareofferedasadventure

tourismproducts.Riskmanagementand

participantmotivationsforthesehavebeenexamined

inparticulardetail.Thestructureand

packagingofindividualproducts,includingthe

roleofindividualparticipantskillsandremote

icondestinations,arelesswellstudied（11）.

Nonconsumptivenature-basedtourismincludes

allactivitiesbasedonwatchinganimals

orplantsorenjoyingscenery（18,20）.Worldwide,

thissubsectorrelieslargelyonnational

parks,wildernessareas,andotherpubliclands

andoceans（12,18,26）.Thesearevisitedby

localresidents,independenttravelers,and

commercialtourclients.Thereisconsiderable

researchonvisitornumbers（30,31）andonthe

economicscale,economicimpacts,andsocial

economicvalueoftourismreliantonparticular

protectedareasorwildlifepopulations