Tourism and Environment.docx

1、Tourism and EnvironmentTourism and EnvironmentRalf BuckleyInternational Centre for Ecotourism Research, Gold Coast Campus, Griffith University,Queensland 4222, Australia; email: r.buckleygriffith.edu.auAnnu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2011. 36:397416First published online as a Review in Advance onJuly 29

2、, 2011The Annual Review of Environment and Resourcesis online at environ.annualreviews.orgThis articles doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-041210-132637Copyright _c 2011 by Annual Reviews.All rights reserved1543-5938/11/1121-0397$20.00Keywordsrecreation, transport, national parks, climate change, managemen

3、tAbstractTourism is a large, diffuse global industry. Environmental aspects arelittle studied, with 1,500 publications in total. Impacts range fromglobal contributions to climate change and ocean pollution to localizedeffects on endangered plant and animal species in protected areas. Environmentalma

4、nagement is limited more by lack of adoption than by lackof technology. Government regulation is more effective than industrybasedecocertification. In developing nations, tourism can contribute toconservation by providing political and financial support for public protectedarea agencies and for cons

5、ervation on private and communallyowned lands. This is important in building resilience to climate change.In developed nations, such effects are outweighed by the impacts ofrecreational use and by political pressures from tourism property developers.These interactions deserve research in both natura

6、l and socialsciences. Research priorities include more sophisticated recreationecology as well as legal and social frameworks for conservation tourism.397Annu. Rev. Environ. Resourc. 2011.36:397-416. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.orgby University of British Columbia on 04/04/12. For personal use

7、 only.ContentsINTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398NATURE-BASED PRODUCTS . . . . . 398Mainstream, Adventure,Consumptive, andNonconsumptive Subsectors. . . . . 398Geography and Land Tenure . . . . . . . 400ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTSAND MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 401Accommodation, Resor

8、ts,and Ecocertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401Travel, Climate Change, andIndirect Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . 402Impacts of Outdoor Tourism inAreas of High ConservationValue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403Managing Tourist Impacts inProtected Areas . . . . . .

9、. . . . . . . . . . . 405TOURISM CONTRIBUTINGTO CONSERVATION. . . . . . . . . . . 406DISCUSSION ANDCONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408INTRODUCTIONTourism is both a category of human behavior,and the multitrillion-dollar industry thatcaters to it. Research on tourism and environmentcros

10、ses a wide range of social and naturalscience disciplines, and key contributions arescattered across many fields.Traditions in tourism research are very differentfrom those in environmental science.Tourism is a large and long-established industry,but tourism research is relatively small, new,insular

11、 and inward looking, with competitionbetween cliques and debate between devoteesof different methods (12). The traditions oftourism research include a strong emphasis onbooks, as a complement to journal articles, topresent primary research data as well as reviews.With rather few exceptions (3), envi

12、ronmentalaspects get a somewhat short shrift in thehighest-impact tourism journals. This applieseven for issues such as climate change, whichare critical to the future shape and survival ofthe tourism industry. Much of the most significantand relevant research in tourism andenvironment has been publ

13、ished in journals ofconservation and economics.There are 1,500 individual academic publicationson various aspects of tourism andenvironment (3, 4), most of them publishedwithin the past 25 years. Indeed, there are over600 articles analyzing recreational disturbancesto birds and other terrestrial wil

14、dlife (5). Thereare several volumes on ecotourism, differingconsiderably in approach and technical detail(4, 6, 7). Related to these are texts on recreationecology (5, 8, 9), adventure tourism (10, 11),and park and wilderness management (12, 13).There are books on sustainable tourism and responsible

15、tourism (14), oriented largely towardsocial and economic considerations. There islimited research on environmental planningand impact assessment for large-scale or mainstreamfixed-site tourism development (15).There are several books on tourism and climatechange (16, 17).Tourism uses nature as part

16、of its products(7, 18); it creates environmental impacts (5, 9);and it can sometimes contribute to conservation(6, 19). This review considers these threeinteractions in turn. Thus, it starts with considerationsof most concern in tourism researchand ends with those of greater interest in environmenta

17、lresearch. It cites about one-tenthof relevant literature directly, emphasizinglarge-scale reviews, classic contributions, themost recent articles in each subtopic, and,where possible, the highest-ranked journals.NATURE-BASED PRODUCTSMainstream, Adventure, Consumptive,and Nonconsumptive SubsectorsPe

18、ople travel to visit other people and otherplaces, and icon attractions include nature aswell as culture: national parks as well as famousbuildings. About a fifth of the global tourismand travel industry, worth around a trillionU.S. dollars a year, depends heavily on outdoor398 BuckleyAnnu. Rev. Env

19、iron. Resourc. 2011.36:397-416. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.orgby University of British Columbia on 04/04/12. For personal use only.natural environments (4). In countries such asKenya, Costa Rica, and New Zealand, withouta large urban tourism subsector, the proportionis up to four-fifths. Many

20、 tourist activitiesneed natural environments (18, 20). Tour operatorscombine components into purchasableproducts, packaging them to appeal to particularmarket segments. The components includetravel and transport, accommodation and catering,and activities and entertainment; and eachhas environmental

21、aspects (4). Tourism also includesindependent travelers, notably familieson holiday in their own cars, and these travelersmay also select a mixture of nature-basedand urban components.There is thus an extensive research literatureon tourist demographics and motivations(21, 22), on tourism marketing

22、(23), and on theeconomic scale of various activity subsectors eitherlocally or globally (4). There is also a rathermore limited literature on the details of productdesign and competitive fine-tuning (11).Environmental components of these, however,are rather limited both in practice and inanalysis.As

23、 measured by economic expenditure, thelargest nature-based subsectors are those thatinclude extensive accommodation and activityinfrastructure as well as associated amenity migrationand residential property development(24). In these cases, the natural environment isused principally as an outdoor pla

24、yground. Themain examples are the ski industry, the marinaindustry, and the beach tourism sector. In researchterms, these are considered as mass ormainstream tourism. Ski resorts rely on retailshopping precincts and residential land salesas well as on lift ticket sales, but their positionand layout

25、is dictated by terrain and climate,and many are on public land originallyallocated for forestry or conservation. In developednations, beach and marina tourism arelargely integrated into coastal cities. In developingnations, the main model is the enclaveresort, which sometimes grow to resort towns.Al

26、though most tourism enterprises are privatelyowned, in some countries they are owned directlyby government agencies. In others, theyare owned privately by government officialsthrough systems of patronage (25).Many outdoor tourism activities also involvelarge numbers of participants, but less infrast

27、ructureand associated expenditure. Most areavailable either as independent self-supportedrecreation or as commercial tourism products.They may be considered in three categories,commonly labeled as consumptive, adventure,and (nonconsumptive) nature based. All of thesemay have marine as well as terres

28、trial components(26). Consumptive nature-based tourismrefers to recreational hunting and fishing(10, 11, 27).Adventure tourism uses outdoor natural environmentsas a setting for excitement-basedrecreation rather than appreciation of nature(10, 11). There is, however, considerable overlapboth in indiv

29、idual motivations and in thedesign of commercial products, which often includenature-based, adventurous, and culturalcomponents in a single product (4, 28).Watchingwildlifecan be exciting as well as educational(10, 11, 29), and many adventure activities takeplace in spectacular landscapes. At least

30、45 differentoutdoor activities are offered as adventuretourism products. Risk management andparticipant motivations for these have been examinedin particular detail. The structure andpackaging of individual products, including therole of individual participant skills and remoteicon destinations, are

31、 less well studied (11).Nonconsumptive nature-based tourism includesall activities based on watching animalsor plants or enjoying scenery (18, 20). Worldwide,this subsector relies largely on nationalparks, wilderness areas, and other public landsand oceans (12, 18, 26). These are visited bylocal residents, independent travelers, andcommercial tour clients. There is considerableresearch on visitor numbers (30, 31) and on theeconomic scale, economic impacts, and socialeconomic value of tourism reliant on particularprotected areas or wildlife populations