语言学.docx

语言学.docx

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语言学

Chapter5Semantics（语义学）

1.Semantics:

isthestudyofmeaning.

Thenamingtheory（命名论）:

oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsothemostprimitiveone.

Thelimitationofthistheory:

a.thistheoryseemsapplicabletonounsonly,butverbs,adjectives,andadverbsaredefinitelynotlabelsofobjects

withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworldatall,andalsonounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobject,butabstractnotions.

2.意念论Theconceptualistview

Itholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.

3.语境论Conceptualism

It’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.heraretwokindsofcontext:

thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.

4.行为主义论Behaviorism

Itreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.thistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.

5.意义Sense

It’sconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.It’sthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it’sabstractandde-contextualized.

6.所指意义Reference

Itmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.

7.同义词Synonymy

Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

8.多义词Polysemy

Itreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.

9.同音（形）异义Homonymy

Itreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.

10.同音异义Homophones

Itreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.rain/reign.

11.同形异义Homographs

Itreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.tearv./tearn.

12.上下义关系Hyponymy

Itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.

13.反义词Antonymy

It’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.

14.成分分析法ComponentialAnalysis----分析词汇抽象意义

It’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.

thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.

15.述谓结构分析PredicationAnalysis由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出

It’sanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.

Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.

通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。

16.先设前提Presupposition

It’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.

17.蕴涵Entailment

EntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.

A:

Markmarriedablondeheiress.

B:

Markmarriedablonde.

Chapter6pragmatics

一、定义

1.Pragmatics:

thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.

2.Thedistinguishbetweensemanticsandpragmatics:

whetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.

1.语境Context

Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage,it’sgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.

3.Sentencemeaning（句子意义）:

studiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.

4.Utterancemeaning（话语意义）:

isbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.

2.言语行为理论Speechacttheory

Speechacttheory:

isanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.

Thedistinctionbetweenconstatives（叙事话语）andperformatives（行事话语）:

constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable;performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.

AccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:

locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.

3.叙述句Constatives

Constativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableanditbearingthetruth-value.;

4.行为句Performatives

Performativesaresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.

5.言内行为LocutionaryAct

Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.it’stheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.

6.言外行为IllcotionaryAct

Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionit’stheactperformedinsayingsomething.

7.言后行为PerlocutionaryAct

PerlocuationaryActistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething.it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.

FivetypesofSearl:

a:

Representatives:

statingordescribing,sayingthatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.

directives:

tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.

b:

Commissives：

committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.

c:

Expressives:

expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.

d:

Declarations:

bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.

8.合作原则CooperativePrinciple

It’sproposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate,otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.

9.会话含义Conversationalimplicatures

AccordingtoP.Grice,itreferstotheextrameaningnotcontainedinthutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsoftheCP.

话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。

5.Thefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:

a.themaximofquantity（数量）:

你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求

A.makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.

B.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreimformativethanisrequired.

b.themaximofquality（质量）不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话

C.donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.

D.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

c.themaximofrelation（关系）:

berelevant.使你的话与话题相关berelevant

d.Themaximofmanner（方式）:

避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序

avoidobscurityofexpression

avoidambiguity

bebrief

beorderly

chapter7languagechange

1.Soundchange:

soundchangestendtobesystematic;itispossibletoseearegularpatternofpronunciationchangesthroughoutthehistoryoftheEnglishlanguage.

2.Morphologicalandsyntacticchange

a.changein“agreementrule”

b.changeinnegationrule

c.processofsimplification:

theremaybealossofgrammaticaldistinctions,throughaprocessofsimplification.

d.Lossofinflections:

3.Vocabularychangeinclude:

a.additionofnewwords

b.lossofwords

c.changesinthemeaningofwords.

4.Additionofnewwords:

a.coinage:

anewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose.

b.Clippedwords（省略词）:

theabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases.

c.Blending（混合词）:

awordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords.

d.Acronyms（大写字母词）:

wordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.

e.Back-formation（逆构词）:

Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.

f.Functionalshift:

wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes.

g.Borrowing（外来词）:

whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoften“borrowed”fromonelanguagetoanother.Theloanwordmaylabelanewconcept,oritmayreplaceorbecomeasynonymofanativeword.

5.Lossofwords

6.Changesinthemeaningofwords:

a.wideningofmeaning:

b.narrowingofmeaning

c.meaningshift

7.theinfluenceofscienceandtechnology

a.spacetravel

b.computerandinternetlanguage

c.ecology:

thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenplants,animals,people,andtheirenvironment,andthebalancesbetweentheserelationships.

Chapter8Languageandsociety

1.sociolinguistics:

sub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.

2.Indicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety:

a.whilelanguageisprincipallyusedtocommunicatemeaning,itisalsousedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.

b.Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.

c.Tosomeextent,language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.

2.Speechcommunity:

insociolinguisticstudies,speakersareregardedasmembersofsocialgroups.Thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialstudy.

3.Speechvariety:

orlanguagevariety,referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.

4.

5.Regionaldialect:

alinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.

6.Social-classdialect:

orsociolect,referstothelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.

7.Idiolect:

apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.

8.Ethnicdialect:

asocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itis