IresonKSpaperNov07.docx

IresonKSpaperNov07.docx

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IresonKSpaperNov07

TheKnowledgeSharingExperienceinAgriculture

RandallIreson

PresentedattheConference,TenProspectsforInternationalCooperationinKnowledgeSharingintheServiceofEconomicDevelopmentintheDPRK

Seoul,November2007

I.Introduction

SincetheDPRKfoodcrisisbeganinthemid1990s,foreigndonorsandaidagencieshaveprovidedassistanceintwomainareas:

agricultureandhealth.Agricultureisofcoursedirectlyrelatedtotheneedforincreasedfoodproduction,whileaidtothehealthsectoraddresseseffectsofbothreducedfoodsupplyandadeterioratedhealth-careinfrastructureintheDPRK.Thispaperwillreviewthehistoryandcurrentstateofknowledgesharingintheagriculturesector,consideringbothknowledgesharingbetweenaidorganizationsandtheirDPRKcounterparts,andknowledgesharingamongthedifferentaidorganizationsworkingintheDPRK.Itshouldbeconsideredasasnapshotofaworkinprogress,becausethenatureanddegreeofknowledgesharingaboutagricultureischanging,andthisconferencemaywellinfluencefuturedirections.

Iwillbeginwithabriefoutlineoftheinstitutionalcontextinwhichagricultureaidhasbeendelivered.KnowledgesharingandmaterialaidintheagriculturesectorrelatesdirectlytotheDPRKfoodcrisis,andhasevolvedoverthelastdecadeastheDPRKfoodsituationhaschangedfromanacuteemergencytoalesscritical,butlonger-lastingshortfallthatisstillbeinglargelymetthroughforeignassistance.Thenatureofagricultureassistancehaschangedinparallelwithchangesinthenatureofthefoodproblemoverthatperiod.Inthemid1990s,theDPRKexperiencedacatastrophicfarmproductioncollapse.Foreignaidorganizationsdeliveredfood,andlaterfertilizer,inanefforttoimprovethenutritionalsituationdirectlyandimmediately.InitiallyverylittlewasknownoutsidetheDPRKregardingitsagriculturalpracticesorpolicies,orevenabouttheproximatecausesofthefoodcrisis.Humanitarianaidrepresentatives（multilateral,bilateralandNGO）workeddiligentlyagainsttheorganizedresistanceoftheDPRKgovernmenttoidentifyandcollectreliableandaccuratedataaboutlocalfoodproduction,farmingpractices,agriculturepolicy,andthestateoftheDPRKeconomy.Tobesure,therewereinstancesofcooperationwithgovernmentsuchasthedevelopmentoftheAgriculturalRehabilitationandEnvironmentalProtection（AREP）plan,butforthemostpartthepositionoftheDPRKgovernmentwasthatthebestroleforforeignassistancewassimplytoprovidefood,fertilizerandfuel.Thegovernmentcouldtakecareofeverythingelseiftheseneedsweremet.

WerecognizenowthattherootcausesoftheDPRKfoodcrisiswerenotthe“naturaldisasters”of1995to1997,thoughthesecertainlycontributedtothecrisis.Infact,thecollapseinfarmproductionhadbegunwellbefore1995,reflectingacuteshortagesoffuelandfertilizerwhichwerecausedbythelossoffriendlytradewiththeUSSRandChina.ThusthefirstinstanceofknowledgesharinginagriculturewastheknowledgegainedbyinternationalorganizationsaboutthepracticalconditionsonDPRKfarms,andaboutthepoliciesandproductiontechnologiespromotedbythegovernment.WithaclearerunderstandingofthesituationintheDPRKfarmsector,foreignaidorganizationsbeganslowlytoadjusttheirprograms,turningfirsttowardshort-termincreasesinfarmproduction,andthentowardlonger-termimprovementsinfarmproductivity.Whiledeliveriesoffoodaidremainedhighthrough2002,thenatureofothermaterialassistanceforagriculturechangedfromanemphasisonfertilizerandplasticfilmtoimprovedseedvarietiestoimprovedmachineryandproductionmethods.

ForeignassistancetotheDPRKhasalwaysbeensubjecttopoliticalconstraints,andaidtotheagriculturesectorisnoexception.Ononehand,agricultureisconsidereda“neutral”topic,onewhichcanbeaddressedinpurelytechnicaltermsandinwayswhichdonotquestionorthreatentheDPRKstate.ForthisreasontheDPRKgovernmenthasacceptedandencouragedaidtotheagriculturesector,andhasbeenlessrestrictiveinallowingitscitizenstointeractwithforeignersthaninotherareassuchaseconomics,laworsocialsciences.Howeverfoodself-sufficiencyhasbeenacoretenetofthejucheideology,and“jucheagriculture”includesanumberofspecificrecommendationsregardingfarmingpractices.Thereforeknowledgesharingeffortswhichquestioneithertheeconomicdesirabilityofself-sufficientfoodproductionorsomeofthefarmingmethodswhichhavebeeninstitutedthroughon-the-spot-guidance,havesometimesbeenseenasimplicitcriticismsoffundamentalDPRKagriculturepolicy.Inpastyears,DPRKpolicymakershavealsodemonstratedatendencytoseek“magicbullets”–simpleproductionsolutionsthatoftendonotrecognizephysicalorenvironmentallimitationstospecificpractices,butarepromotedasTheSolutiontothenation’sfoodcrisis.ThePotatoInitiativeof1999andthenationwidecallin2000tomultiplygrasseatinganimalsarecogentexamples.

ForeignassistanceorganizationshaveforthemostpartchosennottoquestionthestructureofagricultureintheDPRK,suchasrelianceoncooperativeandstatefarms,nationalprocurementofstaplegrainsfordistributionthroughthePDS,centrallyplannedproductiontargetsanddistributionoffarminputs,state-managedpricesforstaplefoods,thelandrezoninginitiative,andsoon.Thispaperalsoacceptsthesestructuralelementsasgiven,asforthemostpartbeingoutsidethescopeofdiscussionregardingknowledgesharing,andalsoasforthemostpartnotbeingsignificantimpedimentstoeitherknowledgesharingortoimprovingfarmproductivity.

II.Thescopeofknowledgesharinginagriculture

DuringadecadeofagriculturalaidtotheDPRK,thetopicswhichhavebeenaddressedarenumerousandwide-ranging.Table1providesapartiallistoftopicswhichhavebeenaddressedbyoneormoreaidprograms.Ascanbeseen,theycovermanyfundamentalaspectsoffarming,anddonotaddressquestionswhichmightbecalled“cuttingedge”researchproblems.Rathertheemphasisinknowledgesharinghasbeenonimprovingtheunderstandingof“bestfarmingpractices”asimplementedindifferentsettingsaroundtheworld.CountrieshostingknowledgesharingdelegationsfromtheDPRK,andthehomecountriesofaidorganizations（bilateralandNGO）whichhavesponsoredthesedelegationsarelistedinTable2.ThelanguagesofagricultureknowledgeexchangeforthelastdecadehavebeenalmostexclusivelyKorean,EnglishandChinese.

BecauseDPRKagricultureresearchersandDPRKfarmershadverylittleknowledgeofandexposuretoideasandpracticesoutsidetheDPRK,mostinternationalagricultureexpertsvisitingtheDPRKinthe1990sdescribedtheknowledgeandpracticesastwotothreedecadesoutofdate.Lackingregularaccesstointernationaljournals,scientistswhomightreadasinglearticlehadnobasisforunderstandingitscontextinthegeneraldevelopmentofagriculturalscience,andconsequentlylittleabilitytoevaluateitforrelevanceorapplicability.Mostearlyeffortsatknowledgesharing–includingbothstudytoursoutsidetheDPRKandvisitingspecialistscomingtotheDPRK–thereforefocusedonimprovingknowledgeofandaccesstobasic,currentagriculturescienceinformation.AidorganizationsalsoengagedinaparallelefforttolearnmoreaboutthelevelofunderstandingandprioritiesoftheirDPRKcounterpartsandcounterpartorganizations.

Anothereffortbyinternationalspecialistshasbeentoovercomewidelyacceptedmis-information,suchasthe“ruleofthumb”forfarmmanagersandAASscientiststhatapplicationof1kgofammoniumsulfatefertilizerwouldalwaysresultinayieldincreaseof10kgofrice.Rigidplantingandharvestdatespromulgatedbythenationalinformationnetworkalsoconstrainedfarmmanagers’abilitytoadapttochangesinannualweatherpatterns.

Twoselectedexamples–poultryproductionandconservationfarming-maygiveabetterideaofthekindofinformationwhichhasbeentransferredintheagriculturesector.Inthelate1990s,theDPRKgovernmentapparentlydecidedtomodernizepoultryproductionnationwide.TechniciansweresenttoEuropetoresearchbreedingandmanagementsystems,andseveralcontractswerenegotiatedwithEuropeanpoultryhousingandequipmentcompaniesandsuppliersofchicks,resultingintheconstructionofseveralturn-keychickenfarmsintheDPRK,financedbythegovernment.Otherstudydelegationsweresupportedbyaidorganizationsandcontinuedtolearnabouttopicssuchasbreedingpractices,poultrygenetics,chickproduction,nutrition,anddiseasecontrol.Withtheoutbreakofavianinfluenzainneighboringcountries,theFAOprovidedtrainingandmaterialsforscreeningforthedisease,andwhenadiseaseoutbreakoccurredintheDPRK,FAOexpertscametoassistindiagnosisandcontrol,anddeterminedthediseasewasnotinfactH5N1influenza.

Morerecently,severalaidorganizationsintroducedtheconceptofreducedtillagefarmingmethodsasameansofimprovingsoilquality,controllingsoilerosion,andreducingfueluseinfarming.ThesepracticesarebeingpromotedintheDPRKas“ConservationAgriculture”.SeveralexpertmissionshavecometotheDPRK,andotherdelegationsfromtheDPRKhavevisitedcountriessuchasChina,BrazilandtheUStoobservereducedtillagepracticesandresults.Specificareasofscientificknowledgewhicharebeingdevelopedincludetheeffectsofconservationagricultureonsoilstructureandsoillife,weedcontrolmethods（mechanical,chemical,andbycroprotation）,testingreducedtillagefarmequipmentintheDPRK,an