现代语言学自考资料分章节总结.docx

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现代语言学自考资料分章节总结.docx

现代语言学自考资料分章节总结

※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※

第一章绪论

1/Whatislinguistics?

什么是语言学?

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics

语言学的研究范畴

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)

Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.(语音学)

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.(音系学)

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.(形态学)

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.(句法学)

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.(语义学)

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.(语用学)

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.(社会语言学)

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.(心理语言学)

Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.(应用语言学)Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.

Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,(人类语言学)neurologicallinguistics,(神经语言学)mathematicallinguistics,(数字语言学)andcomputationallinguistics.(计算机语言学)

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写

Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.

Speechandwriting口头语与书面语

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:

1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole语言和言语

TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用

ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.

Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

4/Whatislanguage?

语言的定义

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Sapiruses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.

5/Designfeatures

语言的甄别性特征

Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.

Arbitrariness语言的随意性

Arbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Itisnotentirelyarbitrary.

Example:

differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.

Productivity语言的创造性

Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.

Duality语言的二重性

Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.

Displacement语言的移位性

Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.

Culturaltransmission语言的文化传递性

Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.

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Chapter2Phonology音系学

1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage

语言的声音媒介

Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.

Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.

Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage(语言的声音媒介).Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds(语音).

2.Whatisphonetics?

什么是语音学?

Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.

语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介,即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

Therearethreebranchesofphonetics.Theyare:

Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学),itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.

Auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学),itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.

Acousticphonetics(声学语音学),itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.

3.Organsofspeech

发音器官

Thepharyngealcavity咽腔thethroat

Theoralcavity口腔themouth

Thenasalcavity鼻腔thenose

Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinmanyways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynx(喉)beforeitreachesanyofthecavities.

Lyingacrosstheglottis(声门)arethevocalcords(声带).Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”.Thespeedofthevibrationdeterminesthepitchofthesound.

Thetongueisthemostflexibleintheoralcavity.

4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions

语音的书写形式-宽式和窄式音标

IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标

Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols(字母符号)only,calledbroadtranscription(宽式音标).Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(变音符号),callednarrowtranscription(窄式音标).

实例:

对pit/spit中p音的比较:

pit中的p是送气音,在窄式音标中标为上标,写作:

[phit]

spit中的p是不送气音,在宽式音标中不作标示,写作:

[spit]

对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较:

Leaf中l在元音前,叫清晰音,在宽式音标中不作标示,写作:

[li:

f]

Feel中l出现在单词结尾,叫模糊音,在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]

Build中l出现在另一个辅音前,也叫模糊音,在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]

Health中l出现在齿音前,受其影响叫齿音[l],在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]

5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

英语语音的分类

a)ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

英语辅音的分类

按发音方式分

Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:

[p][b][t][d][k][g]

Fricative擦音:

[f][v][s][z][W][T][s][V][h]

Affricate塞擦音:

[tF][dV]

Liquid流音:

[l][r]

Nasal鼻音:

[m][n][N]

Glide滑音:

[w][j]

按发音部位分

Bilabial双唇音:

[p][b][m][w]

Labiodental唇齿音:

[f][v]

Dental齿音:

[W][T]

Alveolar齿龈音:

[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]

Palatal硬腭音:

[V][tF][dV][i]

Velar软腭音:

[k][g][N]

Glottal声门音:

[h]

B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels

英语元音的分类

按舌头在口中的位置分:

Frontvowel前元音:

[i:

][i][e][A][a]

Centralvowel中元音:

[[:

][[][Q]

Backvowel后元音:

[u:

][u][R:

][R][a:

]

按口形的大小分:

Closevowel闭元音:

[i:

][i][u:

][u]

Semi-closevowel半闭元音:

[e][[:

]

Openvowel开元音:

[A][a]

Semi-openvowel半开元音:

[[][R:

][Q][R][a:

]

按唇形是否为圆分

Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音:

[i:

][i][e][A][a][[:

][[][Q][a:

]

roundedvowel圆唇元音:

[u:

][u][R:

][R]

按语音的长短分

Longvowel长元音[i:

][[:

][a:

][u:

][R:

]

Shortvowel短元音[i][e][A][a][[][Q][u][R]

在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音,包括:

[ei][ai][[u][au][Ri][i[][e[][u[]

6.Phonology音系学

Phonologyandphonetics

音系学和语音学

Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.

Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;

Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedandd

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