新编语言学教程主要内容13.docx

新编语言学教程主要内容13.docx

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新编语言学教程主要内容13

新编语言学教程主要内容

Chapter1Introduction

I.Definitionoflinguistics

Thescientificorsystemicstudyoflanguage,whichisalwaysguidedbythethreecanonsofscience:

exhaustiveness,consistencyandeconomy.

II.Linguisticsvs.traditionalgrammar

Linguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaratleastinthreebasicways.

1.Linguisticsdescribeslanguagesanddoesnotlaydownrulesofcorrectness.

2.Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.

3.Linguisticsdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmerits.

III.Scopeoflinguistics

Microlinguistics:

Phonetics;Phonology;Morphology;Syntax;Semantics;Pragmatics

Macrolinguistics:

Sociolinguitics;Psycholinguistics;Neurolinguistics;Stylistics;Discourseanalysis;Computationallinguistics;Cognitivelinguistics;Appliedlinguistics

IV.Definitionoflanguage

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

V.Originoflanguage

Ding-DongTheory:

Humanspeechdevelopedfromprimitivemangivingvocalexpressiontotheobjectsheencountered.

Sing-SongTheory:

Languagedevelopedfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise.

Pooh-PoohTheory:

Languagecamefrominterjections,whichexpressthespeaker’semotions.

Yo-He-HoTheory:

Languagecamefromthecriesuttered,duringstrainofwork.

Ta-TaTheory:

Languagecamefromthecombinationofcertaingesturesandtonguemovements.

Bow-WowTheory:

Languagecamefromimitationofanimalcriesandothersoundsheardinnature.

VI.Designfeaturesoflanguage

1.Arbitrariness:

Thisreferstothefactthatthereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.

2.Duality:

Languageoperatesontwolevelsofstructure.Atonelevelareelementswhichhavenomeaninginthemselvesbutwhichcombinetoformunitsatanotherlevelwhichdohavemeaning.

3.Productivity:

Productivityorcreativityreferstoman’slinguisticabilitywhichenableshimtoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativelanguage.

4.Interchangeability:

Interchangeabilityorreciprocityreferstothefactthatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessage,andhisrolesasaspeakerandahearercanbeexchangedatease.

5.Displacement:

Displacementisapropertyoflanguageenablingpeopletotalkaboutthingsremoteeitherinspaceorintime.

6.Specialization:

Specializationreferstothefactthatmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.

7.Culturaltransmission:

Languageisculturallytransmitted.Itcannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.

VII.Functionsoflanguage

1.Phaticfunction/communion:

Languageisusedtoestablishanatmosphereormaintainsocialcontactbetweenthespeakerandthehearer.Greetings,farewellsandcommentsontheweatherservethisfunction.

2.Directivefunction:

Languageisusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesareofthisfunction.

3.Informativefunction:

Languageisusedtotellsomething,togiveinformation,ortoreasonthingsout.Declarativesentencesservethisfunction.

4.Interrogative:

Languageisusedtoaskforinformationfromothers.Allquestionsexpectingrepliesservethisfunction.

5.Expressivefunction:

Languageisusedtorevealthespeaker’sattitudesandfeelings.Ejaculationsservethisfunction.

6.Evocativefunction:

Languageisusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearers.Jokes,advertising,andpropagandaservethisfunction.

7.Performativefunction:

Languageisusedtodothingsortoperformacts.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentences,thepresident’sdeclarationofwarortheQueen’snamingofaship,etc.,servethisfunction.

VIII.Somemajorconceptsinlinguistics

1.Descriptiveandprescriptivegrammar

（1）Descriptivegrammarsattempttotellwhatisinthelanguage;whileprescriptivegrammarstellpeoplewhatshouldbeinthelanguage.

（2）Astraditionalgrammarstriedtolaydownrules,theyareoftencalledprescriptive.Mostmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.

2.Synchronicanddiachroniclinguistics

Whenwestudylanguageatoneparticulartime,itiscalledsynchroniclinguistics.Whenwestudylanguagedevelopmentsthroughtime,itiscalleddiachronicorhistoricallinguistics.

Synchroniclinguisticsfocusesonthestateoflanguageatanypointinhistorywhilediachroniclinguisticsfocusesonthedifferencesintwoormorethantwostatesoflanguageoverdecadesorcenturies.

3.Langeandparole

F.deSaussuremadeanimportantdistinctionbetweenlangueandparole:

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolerefertoparticularrealizationsoflangue.Langueisthesocial,conventionalsideoflanguage,whileparoleisindividualizedspeech.

4.Competenceandperformance

AccordingtoChomsky,competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershavetheirlanguageasasystemofabstractformalrelations,whileperformancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,thatis,theactualuseofthisknowledge.

5.Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations

Saussurehasputforwardanotherpairofconcepts:

syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations.Theformerreferstothehorizontalrelationshipbetweenlinguisticelements,whichformlinearsequences.Thelatermeanstheverticalrelationshipbetweenforms,whichmightoccupythesameparticularplaceinastructure.

6.Functionalismandformalism

Functionalismorfunctionallinguisticsreferstothestudyoftheformsoflanguageinreferencetotheirsocialfunctionincommunication.

Formalismorformallinguisticsisthestudyoftheabstractformsoflanguageandtheirinternalrelations.

Chapter2Soundsinlanguage

I.Phonetics

1.Phonetics:

Thestudyofthespeechsoundsthatoccurinallhumanlanguagesiscalledphonetics.

2.ThreemajorresearchfieldsofPhonetics

Articulatoryphonetics:

Itisthestudyofhowspeechsoundsareproduced,orarticulated.

Acousticphonetics:

Itdealswiththetransmissionofspeechsoundsthroughtheair.

Auditoryphonetics:

Itdealswithhowspeechsoundsareperceivedbythelistener.

II.Articulators

1.Sevenmajorarticulators:

pharynx,velumorsoftpalate,hardpalate,alveolarridgeoralveolum,tongue,teethandlips

2.Voicedandvoicelesssounds

Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairstreamfromthelungisnotobstructedatthespacebetweenvocalcordsandpassesfreely.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoicelesssounds.

Whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairstreamforcesitswaythroughandcausesthemtovibrate.Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoicedsounds.

3.Nasalandoralsounds

Whenthevelumislowered,airescapesthroughthenoseaswellasthemouth;soundsproducedthiswayarecallednasalsounds.

Whenthevelumisraisedallthewaytotouchthebackofthethroat,thepassagethroughthenoseiscutoff,theaircanescapeonlythroughthemouth.Soundsproducedthiswayarecalledoralsounds.

III.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

1.Consonants

（1）Consonants:

consonantsaresoundsproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impedeorcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.

（2）Mannerofarticulationandplaceofarticulation

Mannerofarticulationreferstothetypeofstrictureinvolvedintheproductionofaconsonant（theparticularwaytheairstreamisobstructed）.

Placeofarticulationreferstotheinvolvementofthearticulatorsintheproductionofaparticularconsonant（wheretheairstreamismostobstructed）.

（3）Classificationofconsonants

Intermsofmannersofarticulation,consonantscanbegroupedintostops,fricatives,affricated,liquids,nasalsandglides.

Intermsofplaceofarticulation,theconsonantscanbegroupedintobilabials,labiodentals,dentals,alveolars,palatals,velarsandglottal.

2.Vowel

（1）Vowels:

vowelsaresoundsproducedwithoutobstruction,sonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.

（2）Theheightofthetongue:

frontvowel;centralvowels;backvowels

（3）Theshapeofthelips:

roundedvowels;unroundedvowels

（4）Thewidthofthemouth:

openvowels;closevowels;semi-openvowels

（5）Monophthongsanddiphthongs

Monophthongs:

Theyarethosepurevowelsthathaveanunchangingquality,eitherfromthenumberortheconstantquality.

Diphthongs:

Asequenceoftwosoundsproducedfromonevowelpositiontoanther.

IV.Variationsofsounds

1.Liaison:

Thephenomenonofthelinkingoftwowordsinspeech,inparticularwhenthesecondwordbeginswithavowel,iscalledliaison.

2.Elision:

Thelossofasoundorsoundsinspeechiscalledelision.

3.Assimilation:

Thewaythatsoundsbelongingtoonewordoronesyllablecancausechangeinsoundsbelongingtoneighboringwordsorsyllablesiscalledassimilation.

V.Phonology

1.Phonology:

phonologyisthedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.

2.Phoneme:

phonemeisabasicunitofphonologicalstudy,anditisanabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeaning.

3.Minimalpairsandsets

Minimalpairsarepairsofwordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.

Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiatedeachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme（alwaysinthesameposition）,thenwehaveaminimalset.

4.Freevariation:

Whentwoormoresoundsoccurinthesamepositionwithoutanyapparentchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.

5.Distinctivefeatures:

Whenafeaturedistinguishesonephonemefromanotheritisadistinctivefeature（oraphonemicfeature）.

VI.Syllablesandconsonantcluster

1.Syllables:

TheEnglishwordbeautifulconsistsofthreespeechunits:

beau-ti-f