Layout for Ss Chapter 9 Varieties of Language.docx

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LayoutforSsChapter9VarietiesofLanguage

Chapter9VarietiesofLanguage

1TwoKindsofVarieties

whenlanguageisused,itisalwaysusedinacontext.Whatgetssaidandhowitgetssaidisalwaysdictatedbyavarietyofsituations.Somesituationsseemtodependgenerallyandfairlyconsistentlyonsomeregularsetsoflanguagefeatures,sothatdistinctivevarietiesoflanguageoccur.Thesesetsoffeaturesarehistoricallyformedandarechangingovertime;buttheyremainrelativelystableatacertainperiodofhistorygoverningpeople'slanguageactivity.Asastudyofthelinguisticfeaturesthatcharacterizethemainvarietiesofalanguage,stylisticsneedstodefineitsvarietycategories.Sincethe196o's,hopefully,studiesinthisareahavemadeconsiderableprogress.Modernlinguisticshasworkedoutasystemofvarietycategoriestohelpisolatetheseconsistentrelationshipsbetweenparticularfeaturesoflanguage,andtheparticularsituationsinwhichtheymightpossiblyoccur（seeGregoryandCarroll,1978）.

Theconstantfeaturesofthesituationalcircumstancesofspeecheventsthatcanbeconsistentlyrelatedtovariationsinlanguageusefallintotwomaingroups:

onegrouprelatestotherelativelypermanentcharacteristicsoftheuserinspeechevents,theotherrelatestotheuser'suseoflanguageinsuchevents;andtheyyieldtwomainkindsofsituationalvarieties:

dialectalanddiatypic.

DIALECTALVARIETIES（方言变体）,commonlycalledDIALECTs,arelanguagevarietiesthatareassociatedwithdifferentusersofthelanguage.Asusersinasocietycanbedefinedintermsoftheirindividual,temporal,regional,andsocialaffiliations,andtheirrangeofintelligibility,thereareindividual,temporal,regional,socialandstandardvarietiesrespectively.Thesearerelativelypermanentfeaturesofthelanguageuserinaspeechevent.

DIATYPICVARIETIES（方言类型变体）,commonlycalledREGISTERs,arelanguagevariationsthatareassociatedwiththedifferentusetowhichtheyareput.方言类型变体也即语域是指我们所说所写的语言随着情景类型变化这一事实Suchvarietiesdonotdependonthepeoplewhousethelanguage,butontheoccasionwhenitisused.Differenttypesoflanguageareselectedasappropriatetodifferenttypesofoccasion.Thechoiceisdeterminedbytheconventionthatacertainkindoflanguageisappropriatetoacertainuse.Theoccasionscanbeclassifiedalongthreedimensions,eachpresentinganaspectofthesituationandthepartplayedbythelanguageinthem.Inthisway,registersmaybedistinguishedaccordingtofieldofdiscourse,modeofdiscourseandtenorofdiscourse.

2DIALECTALVARIETIES（方言变体）orDialects

2.1IndividualDialect--Idiolect

Aspecificpersonwilldisplayhisorherownfeaturesofspeechorwritinghabits.Thisisreadilyshowninthefactthatmostofuscanrecognizeourfriendsbythesoundoftheirvoiceorthelookoftheirhandwriting.Eachspeakerorwriterwillhavehisorherownparticularvoicequality,pitchandstresspatterns,favoritelexicalitems,andevengrammaticalstructures.Thesetraitsofspeechorwritingoftenpointtoaperson'sindividualitywhichleadstoaperson'sstyle.Termslike'Conrad'slanguage','Hemingway'slanguage'indicatejustthistypeofvariety.WecallitINDIVIDUALDIALECTorIDIOLECT. 

2.2TemporalDialect

Languagechangesovertime,andsodescriptionofthelanguageatagivenpointoftimeislikelytogiverisetoahistoricalvariety.IntheEnglishlanguage,forinstance,thereareOldEnglish,MiddleEnglish,ElizabethanEnglishandModemEnglish.AvarietywhichcorrelateswiththevariousperiodsofthedevelopmentoflanguageiscalledTEMPORALDIALECT.

SomeofthestrikingdifferencesbetweenOld,MiddleandModernEnglishcanbeseenfromtheirdifferentwaysofexpressingtheidea'It'sme':

OldEnglish

ichiteom

（Iitam）

MiddleEnglish

HitamI

（ItamI）

EarlyModemEnglish

Itisme

2.3RegionalDialect

Languagevariesfromregiontoregion.Owingtothephysicalboundariesofoceansandmountains,peoplewholiveindifferentplacestendtodevelopdifferentspeechpatterns.SofarastheEnglishspeakingworldisconcerned,thereareBritishEnglish,AmericanEnglish,AustralianEnglish,NewZealandEnglish,SouthAfricanEnglish,CanadianEnglish,andotherinternationalvarieties.TherearealsoregionalvarietieswithinGreatBritainandtheUnitedStates,suchascockneyinBritain,NorthMidlanddialectinUSA,etc.AvarietylikethiswecallREGIONALDIALECT.ThelaytermforitisACCENT,asadialectisoftenassociatedwithaparticularaccent.

InspiteofthefactthatwiththeeverintensifyingintercommunicationbetweencountriesandtheresultingclosingupofthetwomajorinternationalvarietiesofEnglish,themoststrikingdifferencebetweenBritishEnglishandAmericanEnglishisstillfoundintermsof

1）phonology;eg

BrE

AmE

ask

/ā:

sk/

/aesk/

address

/a'dres/

/'aedres/

class

/kla:

s/

/klaes/

car

/ka:

/

/ko:

r/

laugh

/la:

f/

/laef/

box

/bōks/

/baks/

epoch

/'i:

pōk/

/'epak/

tube

/tju:

b/

/tu:

b/

when

/wen/

/hwen/

tomato

/to'ma:

tau/

/ta'meitou/

examine

/ig'zaemin/

/eg'zaemin/

either

/'ai6a/

/'i:

6a/

advertisement

/ad'va:

tismant/

/,aedva'taizmant/

2）graphology;eg

BrE

honour

colour

centre

theatre

defence

dialogue

traveller

kilogramme

6/l2/91

（=6Dec,1991）

AmE

honor

color

center

theater

defense

dialog

traveler

kilogram

12/6/91

（=Dec6,1991）

3）vocabulary;eg

BrE

AmE

Tin

can

Telly

TV

chemist's

drugstore

biscuits

cookies

autumn

fall

lift

elevator

groundfloor

firstfloor

lorry

truck

pavement

sidewalk

petrol

gas（oline）

underground（tube）

subway

footpath

trail

sweets

candy

and4）grammar;eg

BrE

AmE

Haveyoueatenyet?

Didyoueatyet?

Hehasjustgonehome.

Hejustwenthome.

Oneshouldalwaysrememberone'sduty.

Oneshouldalwaysrememberhisduty.

OnSundayswedon'twork.

Sundayswedon'twork.

SummersessionlastsfromJunetoAugust.

SummersessionlastsFromJunethroughAugust.

2.4SocialDialect

Justasoceansandmountainsseparatepeopleandcanleadeventuallytodistinctlanguagehabits,sosocialandpoliticalboundariesseparatepeopleandcanbeinstrumentalinpromotingdifferentspeechways.AvarietyassociatedwithcertainsocialgroupisreferredtoasSOCIALDIALECT.

Thesocialgroupsmayidentifythemselvesasseparatesocioeconomicclassesorasethnicgroups.Andcuttingacrossthesesocialboundariesaredifferencesinthewaysofwomenandmen,oldandyoung.Eachgrouptendstohaveitsdistinctivewaysofspeaking.Hencetheoccurrenceofsocioeconomicstatusvarieties,ethnicvarieties,gendervarietiesandagevarieties. 

2.4.1Socioeconomicstatusvarieties

Differentsocioeconomicstatusgroupstendtoshowdifferentpatternsofspeechcharacteristics.Anoftenquotedexampleisthewell-knowncaseofr-fulnessinNewYorkCity.NewYorkerssometimespronounce/r/andsometimesdropitinwordslikecar,fourth,beer,park（when/r/followsavowel,eitherattheendofawordorprecedingaconsonant）.Investigationshowsthattheoccurrenceof/r/inthepronunciationofthesewordsisanythingbutrandomandanythingbutmeaningless.

WilliamLabovinvestigatedpronunciationsof/r/amongemployeesofthreeManhattandepartmentstoresofdifferentsocialrank:

SaksFifthAvenue,anexpensive,upper-middle-classstore;Macy's,amedium-priced,middle-classstore;andSKlein,adiscountstorepatronizedprincipallybyworkingclassNewYorkers.HefoundthatatSaks,thehighest-rankedofthestores,employeespronounced/r/moreoftenthanemployeesdidatSKlein,thelowest-rankedstore.AtMacy's,themiddle-rankedstore,employeespronouncedanintermediatenumberof/r/s.ThisconfirmedLabov'shypothesisthatmembersofhighersocioeconomicstatusgroupswouldpronounce/r/morefrequentlythanwouldindividualsfromlowersocioeconomicclasses.Thefindingshelpexplainthesocialbasisforlinguisticvariation--evensubtledifferencesinsocialstratificationmaybereflectedinlanguageuse. 

2.4.2Ethnicvarieties

Ethnicgroupstendtodevelopandmaintaindistinctivespeechwaysoftheirown.Hencetheriseofethnicvarieties.ThisisespeciallytrueofurbanBlackAmericansintheUSwhohaveactuallydevelopedamostwidespreadandfamiliarethnicvarietyofAmericanEnglish—BlackEnglish,withitscharacteristicphonological,morphological,andsyntacticalfeatures,aswellassomevocabularyofitsown.Itisasrule-governedandsystematic,asrichinitscommunicativeexpressionandadaptability,asothervarietiesofEnglish.

ThemoststrikingcharacteristicsofBlackEnglishareasfollows:

l）Phonologically,BlackEnglishismostsalientinitsfrequentsimplificationofconsonantclustersas'des'fordesk,'pass'forpassed,and'wile'forwild.Anothersalientfeatureisthefrequentdeletionofthefinalstopconsonants,pronouncingsidelikesighandborrowedlikeborrow.

2）BlackEnglishdistinguishesitselfinacharacteristicuseofverbbe.'theomissionofthecontractedforminthepresenttense（'s）,andtheuseofbetoexpressahabitualstateofaffairs;asin

Thatmybook（=That'smybook）.

Thecoffeecold（=Thecoffee'scold）.

Thecoffeebecoldthere（=Thecoffee'salwayscoldthere）.

Further,verbbeisusedtoshowhabitualaction;asin

Dotheybeplayingallday?

（cfDotheyplayallday?

）

Yeah,theboysdobemessin'aroundalot.

（cfYeah,theboysdomessaroundalot

3）AnotherdistinctivefeatureofBlackEnglishistheuseof‘itis'intheplaceof'thereis';asin

Isit（=Isthere）aMissJonesinth