第八讲汉英语言对比.docx
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第八讲汉英语言对比
Lecture8：
ComparisonoftheChineseandEnglishLanguages
8.1.BriefIntroductiontoWorldLanguagesandItsFamilies.
Thereareabout5000languagesintheworld.Accordingtostatistics,thoselanguagescanbedividedintoadozenoflinguisticfamilies,theleadingfamiliesoftheworldlanguagesare:
（1）.Indo-Europeanfamily（印欧语系）,thebiggestlanguagefamily,coveringmostregionsofEurope,AmericaandAsia.ItincludesthetwoancientlanguagesLatinandGreek.ThenEnglish,German,DutchandSwedish（belongingtotheGermanfamily）,Italian,French,Spanish,andPortuguese（belongingtotheRomanlanguagefamily）.
（2）.Sino-Tibetanfamily（汉藏语系）,includingChinese,Thai（泰语）,Burmese（缅甸语）,Lao（老挝语）andTibetan（藏语）.
（3）.Semito-Hamiticfamily（闪米特一含米特语系），includingArabic,Hebrew,EthiopicandthosepeopleswhospeakthesamelanguageinMoroccoandAlgeria.
（4）.Altaicfamily（阿尔泰语系,including3languagebranches:
Turkicbranch（突厥语族）,Mongolianbranch,（蒙古语族）andManchu-Tungusicbranch（通古斯语族））
（5）.UralicFamily（乌拉尔语系，includingRussianregionsinEuropeanareas,Estonia（爱沙尼亚）andFenland）
（6）.Caucasianfamily（高加索语系,intheareasofCaucasusMountain.）
（7）.Malay-Polynesianfamily（马来—波里西亚语系,inthevastareasintheworld,fromtheSouthEasternMadagascar,includingIndonesia,thePhilippinestothebroadPacificareas.）
（8）.Dravidianfamily（达罗毗荼语系,又译德拉维达语系）.ItsmaindistributionsareintheSouthandMiddleofIndia,therestofthenintheNorthofSriLanka,Pakistan.TheleadingLanguageofDravidianfamilyistheoneintheSouthernIndia,includingTamil（泰米尔语）,Telugu（泰卢固语）,Mariajalam（马拉雅兰语）和坚那勒语等。
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ChineselanguagebelongstotheSino-Tibetanlanguagefamily（汉藏语系）,itwasinitiatedabout5000yearsago.Itispictographic（象形文字）andideographic（表意文字）versusalphabetic/phonography（表音文字）.
8.2.TheOriginandDevelopmentofChineseLanguage
8.2.1.SevenStagesofthedevelopmentofChineseLanguage:
8.2.1.1.Jiaguwen（甲骨文，又称为“卜辞”）
JiaguweniskindoflanguageduringYinShangDynasty（21-16centuryB.C.）inscribedontortoiseshellsandanimalbones.itisalsoknownasBuci（“卜辞”，divinationscript）,becausetheywereusedfordivination。
Asitwasinscribedonthecattleshoulderblade,ordeerheadandtortoiseshells,itiscalledJiaguwen.Alsoitwascalled“龟甲文”、“卜辞”、“贞人文”、“契文”、“殷契”etc.Jiaguwenwasfirstfoundbytheepigrapher（金石学家）WangYirong（王懿荣）in1899.
Intheprimitivesocietypeoplewereunabletoexplainsomenaturalphenomenasosuperstitionwaslargelyemployedintheirworkanddailylife,suchasintheirceremoniesandritualsofmarriage,funeral,harvest,evendepartureforhunting,ancestorworship,etc.,Theywoulduseastrologicalceremoniestodivinegoodorbadluckandinscribetheresultsonthetortoiseshellsoranimalboneswithknifeforlaterstudyandresearch.Thoseinscriberswerecalled“贞人”（即史官），andusuallytheywouldleavetheirnamesontheshellsandbonesaftertheinscriptionsweredone.Thereforetheywereineffectthethen“calligraphers”.Inordertoshowtherespectandworshipthelatergenerationshonoredthoseinscribersor“calligraphers”,as“贞人—astrologists”。
8.2.1.2.JinWen（金文，inscriptionsonancientbronzeobjects）
ItwasincreasinglypopularsincethelaterperiodofShangDynastytoputinscriptionsonthebronzeandthiscustomreacheditspeakinZhouDynasty.Inthepre-QinperiodbronzewascalledGold.Thereforetheinscriptionsonthebronzewasalsocalled“金文”—GoldenInscriptions”
Inaddition，astheclockandcookingvesselstooktheimportantpositionsamongtheinscribedbronzeobjects,soitisalsocalled“”ZhongDingWen（钟鼎文）.TherangeoftheapplicationofJinWencanbetracedbacktotheearlyShangDynastytothetimethattheemperorQinShiHuangwipedoutthesixotherkingdomsofQinDynasty,altogetherabout1200years.
8.2.1.3.Xiaozhuan（小篆）
ZhuanisthegeneralnameofDazhuanandXiaozhuan，ashabituallyzhouwen（籀文）wascalledDazhuan（大篆），solatergenerationsspecificallyreferredtoZhuanwen（篆文）asXiaozhuan（小篆）whichisalsocalledQinzhuan（秦篆），asimplifiedformofDazhuan.ItcameintobeinginthelaterperiodofQinStateandbecamepopularduringQinDynastyandthefirstperiodofWesternHan（206B.C.__24A.D.）Xiaozhuanwasawell-knownfruitofQinShihuangEmperor’sunificationoflanguagesalongwiththestandardizationofweightsandmeasurements.
WhentheChineselanguagereachedtothestageofXiaozhuan,itgrewtothestability（thesketches,strokesandstructures）whilethepictographicfeaturesstartedtofadeaway,makingthelanguagemoresymbolized（语言的符号化）andeasiertoreadandwrite.
8.2.1.4.Lishu（隶书）
UntilHanDynastyXiaozhuanwasreplacedbyLishu.Asitwaspopularamongthosesmallofficials,craftsmenandslavessoitwascalled“隶书”.ByHanDynastyChineselanguagetypefaceenteredthestageofLiKaiera（隶楷时代）.AfterHanDynastyXiaozhuanwasusedmostlyinengravedsealorinscriptions.ThischangefromXiaozhuantoLishulargelyincreasedthewritingspeed,whichiscalled“隶变”.ThisistheturningpointthatputanendtothestageofancientlanguageandtheentrancetothemorestablestageofChineselanguagedevelopment.
8.2.1.5.Caoshu（草书）
Caoshuisakindofsimplifiedtypefacethatwritesroughlyandquickly,whichissupplementarytoLishu.Caoshuisusedprimarilyforofficedocumentsandcorrespondence.Caoshuisdividedintotwokinds:
（1）zhangcao（章草）,bearingsomefeaturesofLishu（的拨挑和和捺笔），whichisregularandstrictinform,usedinsomeformaloccasions.
（2）.Jincao（今草），
8.2.1.6.Xingshu（行书）
XingshuisatypefacesomethingbetweenKaishuandCaoshu,notthatregularlikeKaishunorboldandunrestrainedlikeCaoshu.
IfwecompareKaishutopeople’ssitting,thenCaoshuislikerunningandXingshuisliketalking.ItwaspopularinWeiJinDynasties.
8.2.1.7.Kaishu（楷书）
KaishubearssomesimilaritytoLishuinthestructureoftypeface,butitchangeditsshapeofstrokesfromrectangletotheshapeofquadrate,socalled“squaredtypeface”（方块字）.ItisalsocalledRegularScript（正书or真书）.ThereforeKaishuwasusedasprintedtheleadingtypeface.AndafterSongDynasty,kaishuwasartisticallylettered,soitgrewmoreandmoreregularandbeautiful,andwascalled“ImitatedStyleofSongDynastyTypeface（仿宋字）”tilltothisday。
8.3.ClassificationofChineseLanguage
8.3.1．OralorcolloquialChinese（口头语）
Itislessformal,withsimplestructures,simple,easy,familiarandeverydaylanguages,inmostcasesindialect.“Nowtocometothequestion:
isChineseadifficultlanguage?
Myansweris,yesandno.letustakethespokenlanguage,thespokenChinese，Isay,isonlynotdifficult,butascomparedwiththehalfdozenlanguagesthatIknow,____theeasiestlanguageintheworldexcept,___Malay.SpokenChineseiseasy,becauseitisanextremelysimplelanguage.Itisalanguagewithoutcase,withouttense,withoutregularverbs;infactwithoutgrammar,oranyrulewhatever.……becausespokenorcolloquialChineseis,asIsaid,thelanguageofuneducatedmen,ofthoroughlyuneducatedmen.；infactthelanguageofachild.”（中文是一种很难的语言吗？
我的回答是，可以说是，也可以说不是。
首先就口语而言，汉语口语不仅是很容易，而且与我所知的其他6种语言相比，是除了马来语之外最容易的语言。
汉语口语的容易是根源于它是一种及其简单的语言。
它是一种没有语格，没有时态，没有规则与不规则动词的语言。
事实上，也不存在语法其他任何规则。
……汉语口语是一种完全未受教育人的语言，事实上它是小孩的语言。
（辜鸿铭《中国人的精神》p.160-161）
8.3.2.WrittenChinese（书面语）
“Nowwecometothewrittenorbooklanguage.ThemissionariesclasstheseundertwocategoriesandcallthemeasyWenli（简单文理）anddifficultWenLi（繁难文理）.……Theproperclassification,Ithink,shouldbe,plaindresswrittenChinese;officialuniformChinese;andfullcourtdressChinese.IfyouliketouseLatin,callthem:
Literacommunisorliteraoffinalis（commonorbusinessChinese;literaclassicaminor（lesserclassicalChinese;andliteraclassicamajor（higherclassicalChinese）”而书面语又分为：
简单欠修辞的汉语，通行的汉语，高度优雅的汉语三类。
如果你喜欢拉丁文，那可称为：
一般商用汉语，低级古汉语，高级古汉语。
）（ibid）
8.3.3.WrittenformofmodernChineselanguage（白话文）
Baihuawenisalsocalledvernacularwriting（语体文）,orpopularlanguage（俗语）,whichreferstothewrittenChineselanguagebasedonoralChinese,butprocessedwrittenChineselanguage.ItisoppositetotheClassicalChinesewrittenlanguage.ThereformstartedfromtheendofQingDynastycanbeclassifiedintothreephases:
theNewliteralForm（“新文体”）、BaihuaWen（“白话文”）andDazhongyu（“大众语”）
8.3.4.WritingsinClassicalChinese（文学语言，又称文言文）
ClassicalChineseisanancientwrittenChineselanguage,includingthewrittenlanguagebasedonpre-QinDynastyorallanguage.IntheSpringandAutumnslipsofbamboo（竹简）andsilkwereusedforwriting.Laterwhenengravingprinting（雕刻印刷）wasinventedinSuiDynasty（581-618）,andmoveabletypeprinting（活字印刷）inSongDynasty（960-1279）paperbeganbeinglargelyused.Classicallanguageisfeaturedwithitsstressonliteraryquotations（典故），antithesis（骈骊对仗）、neatandorderlytonality（音律工整）,andnouseofpunctuations,bearingvarietyofstyles,suchasTangpoems,（诗）、Songpoems（词）、dramas（曲）、eight-leggedessay（八股）、rhythmicalprose（骈文）,etc.
8.4.FeaturesofChineseLanguage
Asmentionedabove,ingeneralChineselanguagehasnocases,numbers,tenses,passivevoice，regularandirregularverbs.ModernChineseisthemostexcellentlanguageintheworld（“现代汉语言文字是现存人类语言文字中最优越的语言”。
辜正坤《中西文化比较导论》p.112）
8.4.1.Pronunciation
Asatonallanguage，mostChinesewordsaremonosyllables,（如，树，来，美，etc.）havinghomonyms（同音异义）,suchas,小，笑，晓，效，校etc.withgeneralness（笼统）ambiguity（含糊）,broadness（宽泛）,simplicity（简洁）insemantics
8.4.2.Grammaticaldifferences
（1）Morphology（形态学isthebranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternal）structureofwords,andoftheruleswhichwordsareformed.）
Chineselanguagehasnoinflections（屈折），prefixes,suffixes,tenses,cases,numbers,regularandirregularverbs,passive
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