专八资料.docx

专八资料.docx

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专八资料

2010专八语言学必背

I.Introduction

1.WhatisLanguage

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

2.WhatisLinguistics（语言学）

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

3.SomeBasicDistinctions（区分）inLinguistics

3.1SpeechandWriting

Onegeneralprinciple（原则）oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope（范畴）andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.

3.2Descriptive（描述性）orPrescriptive（说明性）

Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.

3.3Synchronic（共时）andDiachronic（历时）Studies

ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.

3.4Langue（语言）andParole（言语）

ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索绪尔）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（实际的）language,orrealizationoflangue. 

3.5Competence（能力）andPerformance（行为）

Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（发声）.

4.TheScopeofLinguistics

Generallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.

Phonetics（语音学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription. 

Phonology（音韵学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.

Morphology（词法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.

Syntax（句法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.

Semantics（语义学）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage. 

Appliedlinguistics（应用语言学）isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.

Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.

Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.

HistoricalLinguistics（历史语言学）isthestudyoflanguagechanges.

Anthropologicallinguistics（人文语言学）usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.

Neurolinguistics（神经语言学）studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.

Mathematicallinguistics（数学语言学）studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.

Computationallinguistics（计算语言学）isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconcepts（概念）areapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.

II.Phonetics（语音学）

1.scopeofphonetics

Speechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:

Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate（协调）intheprocess.

Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated（调节）bytheear,theauditorynerve（神经）andthebrain.

Acousticphonetics（声学语音学）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（传送）betweenmouthandear.

2.Thevocalorgans

Thevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,（气流发生器官）theproducerofvoice（声音发生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（声音共振器官）

3.Consonants（辅音）

Placesofarticulation（发音部位）:

bilabial,（双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal（声门）

Mannersofarticulation:

plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）

4.Vowels（元音）

Theclassificationofvowels:

theheightoftongueraising（high,mid,low）,thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue（front,central,back）,andthedegreeofliprounding（rounded,unrounded）

III.Phonology（音韵学）

1.phonemes（音素）：

adistinctive（有区别的）soundinalanguage.

2.Allophones（音位变体）：

Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.

3.Minimalpairs（最小对立体）：

wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.

4.Freevariation（自由变异）：

Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment（环境）,theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.

5.Complementarydistribution（互补分布）：

Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment

6.Suprasegmentalphonology（超音段音位）：

thestudyofphonologicalproperties（性质）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable（音节），stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音调）andintonation（语调）.

IV.Morphology（词法）

1.inflection（构形法）：

thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.（屈折词缀）

2.Word-formation（构词）：

theprocesses（过程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明词法关系）Theyarecompound（合成）andderivation（派生）.

3.Morpheme（词素）：

thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.

4.Allomorph（同质异象变体）：

somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.

5.Typesofmorphemes:

Theyareroots,（词根）affix（词缀）andstem（词干）.

6.Lexicon（语言词汇）：

initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.

7.Closed-classwords（封闭性）andopen-classwords（开放性）：

theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple（实际上）indefiniteorunlimited.

8.Wordclass（词性）：

Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.

9.Lexeme（词位）：

thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.

10.Idiom（习语，成语）：

Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords（词序）whichissemantically（语义上）andoftensyntactically（句法上）restricted.（限制）

11.Collocation（搭配）：

thehabitual（习惯的）co-occurrences（同时出现）ofindividuallexicalitems.

V.Syntax（句法）

1.Positionalrelationorwordorder（词序）：

thesequential（顺序）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.

2.Constructionorconstituent（句子结构）：

theoverallprocessofinternal（内部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.

3.Syntacticfunction（句法功能）：

therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,（修饰语）complements（补语）,etc.

4.Category（范畴）：

Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.

5.Phrase:

asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.

6.Clause:

agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.

7.Sentence:

Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.

VI.Semantics

1.Conceptualismormentalism（概念主义）：

FollowingF.DeSaussure（索学尔）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指）,i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相关联系）

2.Mechanism（机械主义）：

Somelinguists,Bloomfield,（布鲁费尔德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena.（智力现象）

3.Contextualism（语境主义）：

Itisbasedonthepresumption（假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.

4.Behaviorism（行为主义）：

Behaviouristsattempttodefine（定义）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation（情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（说话）itandtheresponse（反应）itcallsforthinthehearer."

5.functionalism（功能主义）：

functionalistsasrepresented（代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格学派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（争辩）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解释）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.

6.Senserelationships:

Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy（同义词），antonymy（反义词）,hyponymy（下层次）Polysemy（一词多义）andHomonymy（同音异义词）

7.Semanticanalysis:

Itincludes1）componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.（意义成分）2）predication（表述）analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3）relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.

VII.Languagevariation（语言变化）

1.Lexicalchange（词汇的变化）：

changesinlexis.

2.Invention:

（新造词）newentities.

3.Compounding合成词）Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.

4.Blending:

（混合词）：

Itisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots.

5.Abbreviationorclipping（缩写）Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpartorcuttingtheinitialpart.

6.acronym取首字母的缩写词）Itismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenam