工程造价外文及翻译.docx

工程造价外文及翻译.docx

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工程造价外文及翻译

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TheCostofBuildingStructure

1.Introduction

Theartofarchitecturaldesignwascharacterizedasoneofdealing

comprehensivelywithacomplexsetofphysicalandnonphysicaldesign

determinants.Structuralconsiderationswerecastasimportantphysical

determinantsthatshouldbedealtwithinahierarchicalfashionifthey

aretohaveasignificantimpactonspatialorganizationandenvironmental

controldesignthinking.

Theeconomicalaspectofbuildingrepresentsanonphysicalstructural

considerationthat,infinalanalysis,mustalsobeconsideredimportant.

Costconsiderationsareincertainwaysaconstrainttocreativedesign.

Butthisneednotbeso.Ifsomethingisknownoftherelationshipbetween

structuralandconstructivedesignoptionsandtheircostof

implementation,itisreasonabletobelievethatcreativitycanbe

enhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors'observationthatmost

enhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors'observationthatmost

creativedesigninnovationssucceedundercompetitivebiddingandnot

becauseofunusualowneraffluenceasthefewpublicizedcasesof

extravagancemightleadonetobelieve.Onecouldevensaythatadesigner

whoistrulycreativewillproducearchitecturalexcellencewithinthe

constraintsofeconomy.Especiallytoday,wefindthatthereisaneed

torecognizethateleganceandeconomycanbecomesynonymousconcepts.

Therefore,inthischapterwewillsetforthabriefexplanationof

theparametersofcostanalysisandthemeansbywhichdesignersmay

evaluatetheoveralleconomicimplicationsoftheirstructuraland

architecturaldesignthinking.

Thecostofstructurealonecanbemeasuredrelativetothetotalcost

ofbuildingconstruction.Or,sincethetotalconstructioncostisbut

apartofatotalprojectcost,onecouldincludeadditionalconsideration

forland（10～20percent）,financeandinterest（100～200percent）,taxes

andmaintenancecosts（ontheorderof20percent）.Butadiscussionof

theseso-calledarchitecturalcostsisbeyondthescopeofthisbook,and

wewillfocusonthecostofconstructiononly.

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Ontheaverage,purelystructuralcostsaccountforabout25percent

oftotalconstructioncosts,Thisissobecauseithasbeentraditional

todiscriminatebetweenpurelystructuralandotherso-called

architecturalcostsofconstruction.Thus,intraditionwefindthat

architecturalcostshavebeentakentobethosethatarenotnecessary

forthestructuralstrengthandphysicalintegrityofabuildingdesign.

“Essentialservices”formsathirdconstructioncostcategoryand

referstotheprovisionofmechanicalandelectricalequipmentandother

servicesystems.Ontheaverage,theseservicecostsaccountforsome15

to30percentofthetotalconstructioncost,dependingonthetypeof

building.Mechanicalandelectricalreferstothecostofprovidingfor

air-conditioningequipmentandhemeansonairdistributionaswellas

otherservices,suchasplumbing,communications,andelectricallight

andpower.

Thesalientpointisthatthisbreakdownofcostssuggeststhat,up

tonow,anaverageofabout45to60percentofthetotalcostof

constructingatypicaldesignsolutioncouldbeconsideredas

architectural.Butthispictureisrapidlychanging.Withhighinterest

costsandascarcityofcapital,clientgroupsaredemandingleaner

designs.Therefore,onemayconcludethattherearetwoapproachesthe

designermaytaketowardsinfluencingtheconstructioncostofbuilding.

Thefirstapproachtocostefficiencyistoconsiderthatwherever

architecturalandstructuralsolutionscanbeachievedsimultaneously,

apotentialforeconomyisevident.Sincecurrenttrendsindicatea

reluctancetoallocatelargeportionsofaconstructionbudgettopurely

architecturalcosts,thisapproachseemsalogicalnecessity.But,even

wheremoneyisavailable,anyuseofstructuretoplayabasic

architecturalrolewillallowthenonstructuralbudgettobeappliedto

fulfillotherarchitecturalneedsthatmightnormallyhavetobeapplied

tofulfillotherarchitecturalneedsthatmightnormallyhavetobecut

back.Thesecondapproachachieveseconomythroughanintegrationof

serviceandstructuralsubsystemstoroundoutone'sefforttoproduce

atotalarchitecturalsolutiontoabuildingdesignproblem.

Thefinalpricingofaprojectbytheconstructororcontractorusually

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takesadifferentform.Thecostsarebrokendowninto

（1）costof

materialsbroughttothesite,

（2）costoflaborinvolvedineveryphase

oftheconstructionprocess,（3）costofequipmentpurchasedorrentedfor

theproject,（4）costofmanagementandoverhead,and（5）profit.The

architectorengineerseldomfollowssuchanaccuratepathbutshould

perhapskeepinmindhowtheactualcostofastructureisfinallypriced

andmadeup.

Thus,thepercentaveragesstatedaboveareobviouslycrude,butthey

cansufficetointroducethenatureofthecostpicture.Thefollowing

sectionswilldiscusstherangeoftheseaveragesandthenproceedtoa

discussionofsquarefootagecostsandvolume-basedestimatesforusein

roughapproximationofthecostofbuildingastructuralsystem.

2.PercentageEstimates

Thetypeofbuildingprojectmayindicatetherangeofpercentagesthat

canbeallocatedtostructuralandothercosts.Asmightbeexpected,

highlydecorativeorsymbolicbuildingswouldnormallydemandthelowest

percentageofstructuralcostsascomparedtototalconstructioncost.

Inthiscasethestructuralcostsmightdropto10～15percentofthetotal

buildingcostbecausemoremoneyisallocatedtotheso-called

architecturalcosts.Onceagainthisimpliesthatthesymboliccomponents

areconceivedindependentofbasicstructuralrequirements.However,

wherestructureandsymbolismaremore-or-lesssynthesized,aswitha

churchorCathedral,thestructuralsystemcostcanbeexpectedtobe

somewhathigher,say,15and20percent（ormore）.

Attheotherendofthecostscalearetheverysimpleandnonsymbolic

industrialbuildings,suchaswarehousesandgarages.Inthesecases,the

nonstructuralsystems,suchasinteriorpartitionwallsandceilings,as

willasmechanicalsystems,arenormallyminimal,asisdecoration,and

thereforethestructuralcostscanaccountfor60to70percent,even80

percentofthetotalcostofconstruction.

Buildingssuchasmedium-riseofficeandapartmentbuildings（5～10

stories）occupythemedianpositiononacostscaleatabout25percent

forstructure.Lowandshort-spanbuildingsforcommerceandhousing,say,

ofthreeorfourstoriesandwithspansofsome20or30ftandsimple

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erectionrequirements,willyieldstructuralcostsof15～20percentof

totalbuildingcost.

Special-performancebuildings,suchaslaboratoriesandhospitals,

representanothercategory.Theycanrequirelongspansandamorethan

averageportionofthetotalcostswillbeallocatedtoservices（i.e.,

30～50percent）,withabout20percentgoingforthepurelystructural

costs.Tallofficebuilding（15storiesormore）and/orlong-span

buildings（say,50to60ft）canrequireahigherpercentageforstructural

costs（about30to35percentofthetotalconstructioncosts）,withabout

30to40percentallocatedtoservices.

Inmycase,thesepercentagesaretypicalandcanbeconsideredasa

measureofaverageefficiencyindesignofbuildings.Forexample,ifa

low,short-spanandnonmonumentalbuildingweretobebidat30percent

forthestructurealone,onecouldassumethatthestructuraldesignmay

becomparativelyuneconomical.Ontheotherhand,thearchitectshould

beawareoftheconfusingfactthateconomicalbidsdependonthepractical

abilityofboththedesignerandthecontractortointerpretthedesign

andconstructionrequirementssothatalowbidwillensue.Progressin

structuraldesignisoftenlimitedmorebythedesigner'sorcontractor'

slackofexperience,imagination,andabsenceofcommunicationthanby

theideaofthedesign.Ifacontractorisuncertain,hewilladdcosts

tohedgetheriskhewillbetaking.Itisforthisreasonthatboththe

architectandtheengineershouldbewell-versedintheareaof

constructionpotentialsifinnovativedesignsatetobecompetitivelybid.

Attheleastthearchitectmustbecapableofworkingcloselywith

imaginativestructuralengineers,contractorsandevenfabricators

whereverpossibleevenifthearchitectureisveryordinary.Efficiency

alwaysrequiresknowledgeandaboveallimagination,andtheseare

essentialwhendesignsareunfamiliar.

Theforegoingpercentagescanbehelpfulinapproximatingtotal

constructioncostsiftheassumptionismadethatstructuraldesignis

atleastofaverage（oftypical）efficiency.Forexample,ifatotaloffice

buildingconstructioncostbudgetis﹩5,000,000,and25percentisthe

“standard”tobeusedforstructure,aprojectedstructuralsystem

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shouldcostnomorethan﹩1,250,000.Ifaveryefficientdesignwere

realized,say,at80percentofwhatwouldbegivenbythe“average”

efficientdesignestimatestatedabovethesavings,（20percent）,would

thenbe﹩250,000or5percentoftotalconstructioncosts﹩5,000,000.If

the﹩5,000,000figureiscommitted,thenthesavingsof﹩250,000could

beappliedtoexpandthebudgetfor“other”costs.

Allthissuggeststhatcreativeintegrationofstructural（and

mechanicalandelectrical）designwiththetotalarchitecturaldesign

conceptcanresultineitherareductioninpurelyconstructiondesign

conceptcanresultineitherareducti