工程造价外文及翻译.docx
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工程造价外文及翻译
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TheCostofBuildingStructure
1.Introduction
Theartofarchitecturaldesignwascharacterizedasoneofdealing
comprehensivelywithacomplexsetofphysicalandnonphysicaldesign
determinants.Structuralconsiderationswerecastasimportantphysical
determinantsthatshouldbedealtwithinahierarchicalfashionifthey
aretohaveasignificantimpactonspatialorganizationandenvironmental
controldesignthinking.
Theeconomicalaspectofbuildingrepresentsanonphysicalstructural
considerationthat,infinalanalysis,mustalsobeconsideredimportant.
Costconsiderationsareincertainwaysaconstrainttocreativedesign.
Butthisneednotbeso.Ifsomethingisknownoftherelationshipbetween
structuralandconstructivedesignoptionsandtheircostof
implementation,itisreasonabletobelievethatcreativitycanbe
enhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors'observationthatmost
enhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors'observationthatmost
creativedesigninnovationssucceedundercompetitivebiddingandnot
becauseofunusualowneraffluenceasthefewpublicizedcasesof
extravagancemightleadonetobelieve.Onecouldevensaythatadesigner
whoistrulycreativewillproducearchitecturalexcellencewithinthe
constraintsofeconomy.Especiallytoday,wefindthatthereisaneed
torecognizethateleganceandeconomycanbecomesynonymousconcepts.
Therefore,inthischapterwewillsetforthabriefexplanationof
theparametersofcostanalysisandthemeansbywhichdesignersmay
evaluatetheoveralleconomicimplicationsoftheirstructuraland
architecturaldesignthinking.
Thecostofstructurealonecanbemeasuredrelativetothetotalcost
ofbuildingconstruction.Or,sincethetotalconstructioncostisbut
apartofatotalprojectcost,onecouldincludeadditionalconsideration
forland(10~20percent),financeandinterest(100~200percent),taxes
andmaintenancecosts(ontheorderof20percent).Butadiscussionof
theseso-calledarchitecturalcostsisbeyondthescopeofthisbook,and
wewillfocusonthecostofconstructiononly.
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Ontheaverage,purelystructuralcostsaccountforabout25percent
oftotalconstructioncosts,Thisissobecauseithasbeentraditional
todiscriminatebetweenpurelystructuralandotherso-called
architecturalcostsofconstruction.Thus,intraditionwefindthat
architecturalcostshavebeentakentobethosethatarenotnecessary
forthestructuralstrengthandphysicalintegrityofabuildingdesign.
“Essentialservices”formsathirdconstructioncostcategoryand
referstotheprovisionofmechanicalandelectricalequipmentandother
servicesystems.Ontheaverage,theseservicecostsaccountforsome15
to30percentofthetotalconstructioncost,dependingonthetypeof
building.Mechanicalandelectricalreferstothecostofprovidingfor
air-conditioningequipmentandhemeansonairdistributionaswellas
otherservices,suchasplumbing,communications,andelectricallight
andpower.
Thesalientpointisthatthisbreakdownofcostssuggeststhat,up
tonow,anaverageofabout45to60percentofthetotalcostof
constructingatypicaldesignsolutioncouldbeconsideredas
architectural.Butthispictureisrapidlychanging.Withhighinterest
costsandascarcityofcapital,clientgroupsaredemandingleaner
designs.Therefore,onemayconcludethattherearetwoapproachesthe
designermaytaketowardsinfluencingtheconstructioncostofbuilding.
Thefirstapproachtocostefficiencyistoconsiderthatwherever
architecturalandstructuralsolutionscanbeachievedsimultaneously,
apotentialforeconomyisevident.Sincecurrenttrendsindicatea
reluctancetoallocatelargeportionsofaconstructionbudgettopurely
architecturalcosts,thisapproachseemsalogicalnecessity.But,even
wheremoneyisavailable,anyuseofstructuretoplayabasic
architecturalrolewillallowthenonstructuralbudgettobeappliedto
fulfillotherarchitecturalneedsthatmightnormallyhavetobeapplied
tofulfillotherarchitecturalneedsthatmightnormallyhavetobecut
back.Thesecondapproachachieveseconomythroughanintegrationof
serviceandstructuralsubsystemstoroundoutone'sefforttoproduce
atotalarchitecturalsolutiontoabuildingdesignproblem.
Thefinalpricingofaprojectbytheconstructororcontractorusually
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takesadifferentform.Thecostsarebrokendowninto
(1)costof
materialsbroughttothesite,
(2)costoflaborinvolvedineveryphase
oftheconstructionprocess,(3)costofequipmentpurchasedorrentedfor
theproject,(4)costofmanagementandoverhead,and(5)profit.The
architectorengineerseldomfollowssuchanaccuratepathbutshould
perhapskeepinmindhowtheactualcostofastructureisfinallypriced
andmadeup.
Thus,thepercentaveragesstatedaboveareobviouslycrude,butthey
cansufficetointroducethenatureofthecostpicture.Thefollowing
sectionswilldiscusstherangeoftheseaveragesandthenproceedtoa
discussionofsquarefootagecostsandvolume-basedestimatesforusein
roughapproximationofthecostofbuildingastructuralsystem.
2.PercentageEstimates
Thetypeofbuildingprojectmayindicatetherangeofpercentagesthat
canbeallocatedtostructuralandothercosts.Asmightbeexpected,
highlydecorativeorsymbolicbuildingswouldnormallydemandthelowest
percentageofstructuralcostsascomparedtototalconstructioncost.
Inthiscasethestructuralcostsmightdropto10~15percentofthetotal
buildingcostbecausemoremoneyisallocatedtotheso-called
architecturalcosts.Onceagainthisimpliesthatthesymboliccomponents
areconceivedindependentofbasicstructuralrequirements.However,
wherestructureandsymbolismaremore-or-lesssynthesized,aswitha
churchorCathedral,thestructuralsystemcostcanbeexpectedtobe
somewhathigher,say,15and20percent(ormore).
Attheotherendofthecostscalearetheverysimpleandnonsymbolic
industrialbuildings,suchaswarehousesandgarages.Inthesecases,the
nonstructuralsystems,suchasinteriorpartitionwallsandceilings,as
willasmechanicalsystems,arenormallyminimal,asisdecoration,and
thereforethestructuralcostscanaccountfor60to70percent,even80
percentofthetotalcostofconstruction.
Buildingssuchasmedium-riseofficeandapartmentbuildings(5~10
stories)occupythemedianpositiononacostscaleatabout25percent
forstructure.Lowandshort-spanbuildingsforcommerceandhousing,say,
ofthreeorfourstoriesandwithspansofsome20or30ftandsimple
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erectionrequirements,willyieldstructuralcostsof15~20percentof
totalbuildingcost.
Special-performancebuildings,suchaslaboratoriesandhospitals,
representanothercategory.Theycanrequirelongspansandamorethan
averageportionofthetotalcostswillbeallocatedtoservices(i.e.,
30~50percent),withabout20percentgoingforthepurelystructural
costs.Tallofficebuilding(15storiesormore)and/orlong-span
buildings(say,50to60ft)canrequireahigherpercentageforstructural
costs(about30to35percentofthetotalconstructioncosts),withabout
30to40percentallocatedtoservices.
Inmycase,thesepercentagesaretypicalandcanbeconsideredasa
measureofaverageefficiencyindesignofbuildings.Forexample,ifa
low,short-spanandnonmonumentalbuildingweretobebidat30percent
forthestructurealone,onecouldassumethatthestructuraldesignmay
becomparativelyuneconomical.Ontheotherhand,thearchitectshould
beawareoftheconfusingfactthateconomicalbidsdependonthepractical
abilityofboththedesignerandthecontractortointerpretthedesign
andconstructionrequirementssothatalowbidwillensue.Progressin
structuraldesignisoftenlimitedmorebythedesigner'sorcontractor'
slackofexperience,imagination,andabsenceofcommunicationthanby
theideaofthedesign.Ifacontractorisuncertain,hewilladdcosts
tohedgetheriskhewillbetaking.Itisforthisreasonthatboththe
architectandtheengineershouldbewell-versedintheareaof
constructionpotentialsifinnovativedesignsatetobecompetitivelybid.
Attheleastthearchitectmustbecapableofworkingcloselywith
imaginativestructuralengineers,contractorsandevenfabricators
whereverpossibleevenifthearchitectureisveryordinary.Efficiency
alwaysrequiresknowledgeandaboveallimagination,andtheseare
essentialwhendesignsareunfamiliar.
Theforegoingpercentagescanbehelpfulinapproximatingtotal
constructioncostsiftheassumptionismadethatstructuraldesignis
atleastofaverage(oftypical)efficiency.Forexample,ifatotaloffice
buildingconstructioncostbudgetis﹩5,000,000,and25percentisthe
“standard”tobeusedforstructure,aprojectedstructuralsystem
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shouldcostnomorethan﹩1,250,000.Ifaveryefficientdesignwere
realized,say,at80percentofwhatwouldbegivenbythe“average”
efficientdesignestimatestatedabovethesavings,(20percent),would
thenbe﹩250,000or5percentoftotalconstructioncosts﹩5,000,000.If
the﹩5,000,000figureiscommitted,thenthesavingsof﹩250,000could
beappliedtoexpandthebudgetfor“other”costs.
Allthissuggeststhatcreativeintegrationofstructural(and
mechanicalandelectrical)designwiththetotalarchitecturaldesign
conceptcanresultineitherareductioninpurelyconstructiondesign
conceptcanresultineitherareducti