Introduction of Blooms Taxonomy布鲁姆的教育目标分类.docx

Introduction of Blooms Taxonomy布鲁姆的教育目标分类.docx

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IntroductionofBloomsTaxonomy布鲁姆的教育目标分类

Introduction

BenjaminBloom（1956）headedagroupofeducationalpsychologistsdevelopaclassificationoflevelsofintellectualbehaviourimportantinlearning（i.e.Bloom’staxonomy）.ThistaxonomywasfurtherdevelopedbyLorinAndersonandhiscolleaguestoanewversionin2001（Bloom’srevisedtaxonomy）.TillnowBloom’staxonomyhasbeenwidelyusedineducation.Specifically,educationalobjectivesofTaxonomyhavebeenadaptedbyeducationaladministrators,teachers,teachereducators,curriculumcoordinators,andassessmentspecialistsacrosstheboard.BecauseofBloom’staxonomy,human’slearningbehaviourisnotabstractbutconcreteandcanbepreciselydelineatedaccordingtodifferentaffective,psychomotor,orcognitivelevels.However,theobjectivesoncognitivedomainaremostcommonlyappliedineducation,andwillbethefocusofthisassignment.

Withtwoaimsofresearching,i.e.whatBloom’staxonomycontributestounderstandingofstudents’learningbehaviourandwhatimplicationsBloom’staxonomycastsonteachingandlearning,thisassignmentisdividedintothreesections.Inthefirstsection,oldandnewversionsofBloom’sTaxonomywillbeintroducedaccompaniedbyacomparisonbetweenthetwo.WethenturntodescribehowTaxonomyfacilitatesteachingandlearningincurriculumdesign,classroominstructions,andassessments,drawinguponlatestresourcesandexamplesfromschoolsoreducationalinstitutes.Inthethirdsection,itwillbepointedoutthatlikeeverytheoryoflearninganddevelopmentBloom’taxonomyhasweaknessesandlimitations.Itisjustonemethodofdescribingandevaluatinghuman’slearningactivities,therebyitissuggestedtobeusedalongwithothereducationalapproachesandwithawarenesstoavoidthesideeffectofitsweaknessesandlimitations.

Bloom’sOriginalTaxonomy

Bloom’sOriginalTaxonomycomesfromtheeffortsofagroupofeducationalpsychologistsgatheredbyBenjaminS.Bloom,thenAssociateDirectoroftheBoardofExaminationsoftheUniversityofChicago,toreducethelaborofannuallyexaminationpreparationbycreatingaframeworktoguidetestitems’designthatcanbesharedacrossAmericanuniversities.Thisframeworkisaclassificationofeducationalobjectives,i.e.whatstudentsareexpectedtobehaveasaresultoflearning.Thepracticeofthisframeworkthenin1956cameuponwiththepublishedBloom’sTaxonomy.

Bloomandhiscolleaguesdividedlearningobjectivesintothreepsychologicaldomainsorareas:

Cognitivedomain,Affectivedomain,andPsychomotordomain,whichsometimesarelooselydescribedasknowing（orhead）,feeling（orheart）anddoing（orhands）respectively.Specifically,skillsinCognitivedomaininvolveknowledge,comprehension,andcriticalthinking;skillsinAffectivedomaindealwithattitudes,emotion,andfeelings;andskillsinthepsychomotordomainfocusonmanipulative,manualorphysicalbehaviour.Eachdomainisdividedintoseveralcategoriesfromlower-orderskillstohigher-orderskills（seebelowfigure1）.

Figure1:

Bloom'sthreepsychologicaldomains

CognitiveskillsAffectiveskillsPsychomotorskills

However,Bloomisbestknownfortheresearchincognitivedomain.Inthisdomain,cognitiveprocesseswereclassifiedintosixcategories,i.e.Knowledge,Comprehension,Application,Analysis,Synthesis,andEvaluation.Theyarearrangedinacumulativehierarchy,whichmeansthemasteryofsimplethinkingskillsisrequiredpriortothemasteryofcomplexones.Furthermore,eachmaincategorywasbrokenintosubcategoriesexceptApplication.

Withitspreciseclassificationofeducationalobjectives,Bloom’staxonomymakesitpossibleforteachingcontentandprocesstobeformulated.Italsoprovidesaconvenientandobjectivemeasurementforlearningbehaviours,whichishelpfulinenhancingeducationalquality.

Afterhavingbeenputintopracticefor45years,Bloom’staxonomy,however,hasrevealedweaknessesandlimitations,thusin2001,anewgroupofcognitivepsychologists,educationalresearchersandtestingspecialistsledbyBloom’sformerstudentLorinAndersonupdatedthetaxonomytoarevisedversion.Bloom’srevisedtaxonomydrewonrecenteducationalandpsychologicaldevelopmentinthe21stcenturyandmadeitamorecompleteandpracticaleducationalmethod.Detailswillbegiveninthenextsection.

Bloom’srevisedtaxonomy

Therevisedtaxonomywasdevelopedinmuchthesamemannerastheoriginalone.Itretainedthesamenumber（i.e.six）ofcognitiveprocessesandkeptsomeoftheoriginalknowledgesubjects.However,12changeshavebeenmadeinemphasis,structureandterminology,andsomechangesaresignificantandwillbediscussedbelow.

Firstly,withrespecttoemphasis,therevisedtaxonomyaimstoserveawiderangeofteachers,notonlyhighereducationteachers,whoarefocusoftheoriginaltaxonomy,butalsothosefromelementaryandsecondaryeducation,thusitaddedexamplesfromfundamentaleducation.Anotherimportantshiftofemphasiswasfromservingexaminationstothetaxonomyinuse,i.e.theoriginaltaxonomyfocusedonassessmentsbyprovidingabundantexamplesoftestitemswhereastherevisedtaxonomygivesmanyexamplesofhowthetaxonomyisusedincurriculumdesign,instruction,assessmentandthealignmentofthethree.Inaddition,comparingwiththeoriginaltaxonomyinwhichthesixmajorcategoriesweregivenfarmoreattentionthanthesubcategories,therevisedversiondescribedthelatterindetail.Thisindeedcouldhelpteachersunderstandthenatureofthesixmajorcategoriesmoreclearly（Krathwohl,2002）.

Second,intermsofterminology,atfirst,thesixmajorcategorieswerechangedfromnounstoverbs（seefigure2）.Specifically,KnowledgeandComprehensionwererenamedtoRememberandUnderstand,SynthesiswasretitledtoCreate,whilstApplication,AnalysisandEvaluationwerechangedtotheirverbformsApply,Analyse,andEvaluate.Thenthesubtypesofeachcategorywereallreplacedbytheirgerunds,calledas‘cognitiveprocesses’（Andersonedal.,2001,p64）,tosuitthewayinstructionsareusedbyteachers,takeAnalyzeforexample,intheoriginalversion,itisAnalysisconsistingofAnalysisofelements,AnalysisofrelationshipsandAnalysisoforganizationalprinciples,whileintherevisedversionitturnedtobeAnalyzewithsubcategoriesDifferentiating,OrganizingandAttributing.

Figure2:

AcomparisonbetweentheOriginalTaxonomyandtheRevisedTaxonomy

OriginalTaxonomy

RevisedTaxonomy

Thethirdtypeandalsothemostsignificantchangesareinstructure.

1）Fromonedimensiontotwodimensions

Ashasbeenmentionedabove,Bloom’srevisedtaxonomyhasintegratedthelatestresearchoneducationandpsychology（e.g.Constructivism,Self-regulatedlearning,andMetacognition）in21stCentury,mostofwhichemphasizelearners’roleindevelopmentandassumedthatlearnersthemselvesareactivelyinvolvedintheprocessesoflearning.AsAndersonedal.（2001,p38）putit‘‘passiveviewsoftakinglearnersas‘passiverecipients’and‘informationrecorders’hadbeenshiftedtowardsmorecognitiveandconstructivistperspectivesemphasizeswhatlearnersknow（knowledge）andhowtheythink（cognitiveprocess）’’;therefore,inBloom’srevisedtaxonomy,thecategorizationofobjectiveshasbeenchangedfromonedimensiontotwo-dimensions:

KnowledgeDimensionandCognitiveDimension（seetable1）.

Table1:

TheTwoDimensionalTaxonomyTable

TheCognitiveProcessDimension

TheKnowledge

Dimension

1.Remember

2.Understand

3.Apply

4.Analyze

5.Evaluate

6.Create

A.Factual

Knowledge

B.Conceptual

Knowledge

C.Procedural

Knowledge

D.Metacognitive

Knowledge

2）Knowledgedimension

Intheoriginaltaxonomy,Knowledgeactuallypossessesbothnounandverbaspects,thenounaspectwasshowninits9subcategoriesandtheverbaspectwasexplainedinitsdefinition（i.e.recallorrecognize）,butinthestructureoftheoriginaltaxonomy,theKnowledgecategorydisplaysonlynounaspect,say,subcategorieslikeKnowledgeofspecificfacts,Knowledgeofclassificationsandcategories.However,theotherfivemajorcategoriesallshowverb-nounrelationship,say,subcategorieslikeAnalysisoforganizationalprinciples,Productionofaplan,orproposedsetofoperations.Moreover,inteachingreality,instructionalobjectivesareusuallyformulatedbytwoparts:

somesubjectmattercontentandadescriptionofthedeedtothatcontent（Amer,2006）.SotherevisedtaxonomyrectifiedthissituationbyseparatingthenounroleofKnowledgetoanewdimensionKnowledgeDimension.

Fromtable1,itcouldalsobeenseenthatanewKnowledgecategory‘Metacognitiveknowledge’hasbeenaddedintotheKnowledgedimension.Asithasbeenmentionedabove,therevisedtaxonomyhadbeeninfluencedbyrecenteducationaldevelopment,thisMetacognitiveknowledgecomesfromMetacognitionwhichisassumedtobe‘cognitionaboutcognition’（Flavell,1985,p.104）.OneimportantassumptiononMetacognitionisthatitconsistsoftwocomponents,thefirscomponentisknowledgeaboutwhatskills,strategiesandresourcesarerequiredtocompleteatask（Schunk,2008）,whereasthesecondinvolvesprocessesonhowandwhentoapplytheformer‘cognitiveknowledge’tosuccessfullycompleteatask（Pintrich,2002）,thusitcouldbeinferredthatMetacognitiveknowledgecorrespondtotheKnowledgeDimensionandCognitiveDimensionofthetaxonomyTablerespectively.

3）CognitiveDimension

WithrespecttothestructureoftheCognitiveDimension,thetoptwohigher-orderprocesseswereinterchanged,placingCreateahigherlevelth