SelfdeterminationtheoryandthefacilitationofintrinsicmotivationSocaildevelopmentandwell.docx

SelfdeterminationtheoryandthefacilitationofintrinsicmotivationSocaildevelopmentandwell.docx

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SelfdeterminationtheoryandthefacilitationofintrinsicmotivationSocaildevelopmentandwell

AmericanPsychologist

Copyright2000bytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,Inc.

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Volume55

（1）       January2000       p68–78

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Self-DeterminationTheoryandtheFacilitationofIntrinsicMotivation,SocialDevelopment,andWell-Being

[Articles]

Ryan,RichardM.1,2;Deci,EdwardL.1,3

1DepartmentofClinicalandSocialSciencesinPsychology,UniversityofRochester

2CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoRichardM.Ryan,DepartmentofClinicalandSocialSciencesinPsychology,UniversityofRochester,Rochester,NY14627.Electronicmailmaybesentto********************.edu.

3CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoEdwardL.Deci,DepartmentofClinicalandSocialSciencesinPsychology,UniversityofRochester,Rochester,NY14627.Electronicmailmaybesentto********************.edu.

ThisworkwassupportedinpartbyresearchGrantMH-53385fromtheNationalInstituteofMentalHealth.WethankallofthemembersoftheHumanMotivationResearchGroupattheUniversityofRochesterwhohavecontributedtotheseideasandresearch,andtoJenniferLaGuardia,CharlesCouchman,andPhyllisJoefortheirspecifichelpwiththisarticle.

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Outline

*Abstract

*Self-DeterminationTheory

*TheNatureofMotivation

*IntrinsicMotivation

*Self-RegulationofExtrinsicMotivation

*FacilitatingIntegrationofExtrinsicMotivation

*AlienationandItsPrevention

*PsychologicalNeedsandMentalHealth

*Conclusions

*References

Graphics

*Figure1

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Abstract

Humanbeingscanbeproactiveandengagedor,alternatively,passiveandalienated,largelyasafunctionofthesocialconditionsinwhichtheydevelopandfunction.Accordingly,researchguidedbyself-determinationtheoryhasfocusedonthesocial–contextualconditionsthatfacilitateversusforestallthenaturalprocessesofself-motivationandhealthypsychologicaldevelopment.Specifically,factorshavebeenexaminedthatenhanceversusundermineintrinsicmotivation,self-regulation,andwell-being.Thefindingshaveledtothepostulateofthreeinnatepsychologicalneeds—competence,autonomy,andrelatedness—whichwhensatisfiedyieldenhancedself-motivationandmentalhealthandwhenthwartedleadtodiminishedmotivationandwell-being.Alsoconsideredisthesignificanceofthesepsychologicalneedsandprocesseswithindomainssuchashealthcare,education,work,sport,religion,andpsychotherapy.

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Thefullestrepresentationsofhumanityshowpeopletobecurious,vital,andself-motivated.Attheirbest,theyareagenticandinspired,strivingtolearn;extendthemselves;masternewskills;andapplytheirtalentsresponsibly.Thatmostpeopleshowconsiderableeffort,agency,andcommitmentintheirlivesappears,infact,tobemorenormativethanexceptional,suggestingsomeverypositiveandpersistentfeaturesofhumannature.

Yet,itisalsoclearthatthehumanspiritcanbediminishedorcrushedandthatindividualssometimesrejectgrowthandresponsibility.Regardlessofsocialstrataorculturalorigin,examplesofbothchildrenandadultswhoareapathetic,alienated,andirresponsibleareabundant.Suchnon-optimalhumanfunctioningcanbeobservednotonlyinourpsychologicalclinicsbutalsoamongthemillionswho,forhoursaday,sitpassivelybeforetheirtelevisions,stareblanklyfromthebackoftheirclassrooms,orwaitlistlesslyfortheweekendastheygoabouttheirjobs.Thepersistent,proactive,andpositivetendenciesofhumannatureareclearlynotinvariantlyapparent.

Thefactthathumannature,phenotypicallyexpressed,canbeeitheractiveorpassive,constructiveorindolent,suggestsmorethanmeredispositionaldifferencesandisafunctionofmorethanjustbiologicalendowments.Italsobespeaksawiderangeofreactionstosocialenvironmentsthatisworthyofourmostintensescientificinvestigation.Specifically,socialcontextscatalyzebothwithin-andbetween-persondifferencesinmotivationandpersonalgrowth,resultinginpeoplebeingmoreself-motivated,energized,andintegratedinsomesituations,domains,andculturesthaninothers.Researchontheconditionsthatfosterversusunderminepositivehumanpotentialshasboththeoreticalimportandpracticalsignificancebecauseitcancontributenotonlytoformalknowledgeofthecausesofhumanbehaviorbutalsotothedesignofsocialenvironmentsthatoptimizepeople'sdevelopment,performance,andwell-being.Researchguidedbyself-determinationtheory（SDT）hashadanongoingconcernwithpreciselytheseissues（Deci&Ryan,1985,1991;Ryan,1995）.

Self-DeterminationTheory

SDTisanapproachtohumanmotivationandpersonalitythatusestraditionalempiricalmethodswhileemployinganorganismicmetatheorythathighlightstheimportanceofhumans'evolvedinnerresourcesforpersonalitydevelopmentandbehavioralself-regulation（Ryan,Kuhl,&Deci,1997）.Thus,itsarenaistheinvestigationofpeople'sinherentgrowthtendenciesandinnatepsychologicalneedsthatarethebasisfortheirself-motivationandpersonalityintegration,aswellasfortheconditionsthatfosterthosepositiveprocesses.Inductively,usingtheempiricalprocess,wehaveidentifiedthreesuchneeds—theneedsforcompetence（Harter,1978;White,1963）,relatedness（Baumeister&Leary,1995;Reis,1994）,andautonomy（deCharms,1968;Deci,1975）—thatappeartobeessentialforfacilitatingoptimalfunctioningofthenaturalpropensitiesforgrowthandintegration,aswellasforconstructivesocialdevelopmentandpersonalwell-being.

MuchoftheresearchguidedbySDThasalsoexaminedenvironmentalfactorsthathinderorundermineself-motivation,socialfunctioning,andpersonalwell-being.Althoughmanyspecificdeleteriouseffectshavebeenexplored,theresearchsuggeststhatthesedetrimentscanbemostparsimoniouslydescribedintermsofthwartingthethreebasicpsychologicalneeds.Thus,SDTisconcernednotonlywiththespecificnatureofpositivedevelopmentaltendencies,butitalsoexaminessocialenvironmentsthatareantagonistictowardthesetendencies.

TheempiricalmethodsusedinmuchoftheSDTresearchhavebeenintheBaconiantradition,inthatsocialcontextualvariableshavebeendirectlymanipulatedtoexaminetheireffectsonbothinternalprocessesandbehavioralmanifestations.Theuseofexperimentalparadigmshasallowedustospecifytheconditionsunderwhichpeople'snaturalactivityandconstructivenesswillflourish,aswellasthosethatpromotealackofself-motivationandsocialintegration.Inthisway,wehaveusedexperimentalmethodswithoutacceptingthemechanisticorefficientcausalmeta-theoriesthathavetypicallybeenassociatedwiththosemethods.

InthisarticlewereviewworkguidedbySDT,addressingitsimplicationsforthreeimportantoutcomes.Webeginwithanexaminationofintrinsicmotivation,theprototypicmanifestationofthehumantendencytowardlearningandcreativity,andweconsiderresearchspecifyingconditionsthatfacilitateversusforestallthisspecialtypeofmotivation.Second,wepresentananalysisofself-regulation,whichconcernshowpeopletakeinsocialvaluesandextrinsiccontingenciesandprogressivelytransformthemintopersonalvaluesandself-motivations.Inthatdiscussion,weoutlinedifferentformsofinternalizedmotivation,addressingtheirbehavioralandexperientialcorrelatesandtheconditionsthatarelikelytopromotethesedifferentmotivations.Third,wefocusonstudiesthathavedirectlyexaminedtheimpactofpsychologicalneedfulfillmentonhealthandwell-being.

TheNatureofMotivation

Motivationconcernsenergy,direction,persistenceandequifinality—allaspectsofactivationandintention.Motivationhasbeenacentralandperennialissueinthefieldofpsychology,foritisatthecoreofbiological,cognitive,andsocialregulation.Perhapsmoreimportant,intherealworld,motivationishighlyvaluedbecauseofitsconsequences:

Motivationproduces.Itisthereforeofpreeminentconcerntothoseinrolessuchasmanager,teacher,religiousleader,coach,healthcareprovider,andparentthatinvolvemobilizingotherstoact.

Althoughmotivationisoftentreatedasasingularconstruct,evensuperficialreflectionsuggeststhatpeoplearemovedtoactbyverydifferenttypesoffactors,withhighlyvariedexperiencesandconsequences.Peoplecanbemotivatedbecausetheyvalueanactivityorbecausethereisstrongexternalcoercion.Theycanbeurgedintoactionbyanabidinginterestorbyabribe.Theycanbehavefromasenseofpersonalcommitmenttoexcelorfromfearofbeingsurveilled.Thesecontrastsbetweencasesofhavinginternalmotivationversusbeingexternallypressuredaresurelyfamiliartoeveryone.Theissueofwhetherpeoplestandbehindabehavioroutoftheirinterestsandvalues,ordoitforreasonsexternaltotheself,isamatterofsignificanceineveryculture（e.g.,Johnson,1993）andrepresentsabasicdimensionbywhichpeoplemakesenseoftheirownandothers'behavior（deCharms,1968;Heider,1958;Ryan&Connell,1989）.

Comparisonsbetweenpeoplewhosemotivationisauthentic（literally,self-authoredorendorsed）andthosewhoaremerelyexternallycontrolledforanactiontypicallyrevealthattheformer,relativetothelatter,h