SelfdeterminationtheoryandthefacilitationofintrinsicmotivationSocaildevelopmentandwell.docx

1、SelfdeterminationtheoryandthefacilitationofintrinsicmotivationSocaildevelopmentandwellAmerican PsychologistCopyright 2000 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.-Volume 55(1) January 2000 p 6878-Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and W

2、ell-BeingArticlesRyan, Richard M.1,2; Deci, Edward L.1,31Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester2Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Richard M. Ryan, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester,

3、 Rochester, NY 14627. Electronic mail may be sent to *.edu.3Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Edward L. Deci, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627. Electronic mail may be sent to *.edu.This work was support

4、ed in part by research Grant MH-53385 from the National Institute of Mental Health. We thank all of the members of the Human Motivation Research Group at the University of Rochester who have contributed to these ideas and research, and to Jennifer LaGuardia, Charles Couchman, and Phyllis Joe for the

5、ir specific help with this article.-Output.2281K Links.History.Outline* Abstract* Self-Determination Theory* The Nature of Motivation* Intrinsic Motivation* Self-Regulation of Extrinsic Motivation* Facilitating Integration of Extrinsic Motivation* Alienation and Its Prevention* Psychological Needs a

6、nd Mental Health* Conclusions* ReferencesGraphics* Figure 1-AbstractHuman beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theory has foc

7、used on the socialcontextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led

8、 to the postulate of three innate psychological needscompetence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and process

9、es within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy.-The fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply t

10、heir talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature.Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or c

11、rushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological

12、clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invari

13、antly apparent.The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environmen

14、ts that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures tha

15、n in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize peo

16、ples development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these issues (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Ryan, 1995).Self-Determination TheorySDT is an approach to human motivation and personality that uses traditional empiric

17、al methods while employing an organismic metatheory that highlights the importance of humans evolved inner resources for personality development and behavioral self-regulation (Ryan, Kuhl, & Deci, 1997). Thus, its arena is the investigation of peoples inherent growth tendencies and innate psychologi

18、cal needs that are the basis for their self-motivation and personality integration, as well as for the conditions that foster those positive processes. Inductively, using the empirical process, we have identified three such needsthe needs for competence (Harter, 1978; White, 1963), relatedness (Baum

19、eister & Leary, 1995; Reis, 1994), and autonomy (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975)that appear to be essential for facilitating optimal functioning of the natural propensities for growth and integration, as well as for constructive social development and personal well-being.Much of the research guided by S

20、DT has also examined environmental factors that hinder or undermine self-motivation, social functioning, and personal well-being. Although many specific deleterious effects have been explored, the research suggests that these detriments can be most parsimoniously described in terms of thwarting the

21、three basic psychological needs. Thus, SDT is concerned not only with the specific nature of positive developmental tendencies, but it also examines social environments that are antagonistic toward these tendencies.The empirical methods used in much of the SDT research have been in the Baconian trad

22、ition, in that social contextual variables have been directly manipulated to examine their effects on both internal processes and behavioral manifestations. The use of experimental paradigms has allowed us to specify the conditions under which peoples natural activity and constructiveness will flour

23、ish, as well as those that promote a lack of self-motivation and social integration. In this way, we have used experimental methods without accepting the mechanistic or efficient causal meta-theories that have typically been associated with those methods.In this article we review work guided by SDT,

24、 addressing its implications for three important outcomes. We begin with an examination of intrinsic motivation, the prototypic manifestation of the human tendency toward learning and creativity, and we consider research specifying conditions that facilitate versus forestall this special type of mot

25、ivation. Second, we present an analysis of self-regulation, which concerns how people take in social values and extrinsic contingencies and progressively transform them into personal values and self-motivations. In that discussion, we outline different forms of internalized motivation, addressing th

26、eir behavioral and experiential correlates and the conditions that are likely to promote these different motivations. Third, we focus on studies that have directly examined the impact of psychological need fulfillment on health and well-being.The Nature of MotivationMotivation concerns energy, direc

27、tion, persistence and equifinalityall aspects of activation and intention. Motivation has been a central and perennial issue in the field of psychology, for it is at the core of biological, cognitive, and social regulation. Perhaps more important, in the real world, motivation is highly valued becau

28、se of its consequences: Motivation produces. It is therefore of preeminent concern to those in roles such as manager, teacher, religious leader, coach, health care provider, and parent that involve mobilizing others to act.Although motivation is often treated as a singular construct, even superficia

29、l reflection suggests that people are moved to act by very different types of factors, with highly varied experiences and consequences. People can be motivated because they value an activity or because there is strong external coercion. They can be urged into action by an abiding interest or by a br

30、ibe. They can behave from a sense of personal commitment to excel or from fear of being surveilled. These contrasts between cases of having internal motivation versus being externally pressured are surely familiar to everyone. The issue of whether people stand behind a behavior out of their interest

31、s and values, or do it for reasons external to the self, is a matter of significance in every culture (e.g., Johnson, 1993) and represents a basic dimension by which people make sense of their own and others behavior (deCharms, 1968; Heider, 1958; Ryan & Connell, 1989).Comparisons between people whose motivation is authentic (literally, self-authored or endorsed) and those who are merely externally controlled for an action typically reveal that the former, relative to the latter, h