会展经济与管理新媒体营销中英文对照外文翻译文献.docx

会展经济与管理新媒体营销中英文对照外文翻译文献.docx

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会展经济与管理新媒体营销中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译

（文档含英文原文和中文翻译）

原文:

SocialNetworksandtheMassMedia

Adaptedfrom:

AmericanPoliticalScienceReview,2013,107

Socialnetworkinghasbecomeaneverydaypartofmanypeoples’livesasevidencedbythehugeusercommunitiesthatarepartofsuchnetworks.Facebook,forinstance,waslaunchedinFebruary2004byHarvardundergraduatestudentsasanalternativetothetraditionalstudentdirectory.IntendedtocoverinteractionbetweenstudentsatUniversities–Facebookenablesindividualstoencourageotherstojointhenetworkthroughpersonalizedinvitations,friendsuggestionsandcreationofspecialistgroups.TodayFacebookhasamuchwidertakeupthanjuststudentsatUniversities.Facebooknowfacilitatesinteractionbetweenpeoplebyenablingsharingofcommoninterests,videos,photos,etc.Sharing,

Somesocialnetworkpopulationsexceedthatoflargecountries,forexampleFacebookhasover350millionactiveusers.Socialnetworksprovideaplatformtofacilitatecommunicationandsharingbetweenusers,inanattempttomodelrealworldrelationships.Socialnetworkinghasnowalsoextendedbeyondcommunicationbetweenfriends;forinstance,thereareamultitudeofintegratedapplicationsthatarenowmadeavailablebycompanies,andsomeorganizationsusesuchapplications,suchasFacebookConnecttoauthenticateusers,i.e.theyutilizeauser’sFacebookcredentialsratherthanrequiringtheirowncredentials（forexampletheCalgaryAirportauthorityinCanadausesFacebookConnecttograntaccesstotheirWiFinetwork）.Thisabilitytocombineathirdpartyapplication（includingitslocaldata）toauthenticateusersdemonstratestheservice-orientedapproachtoapplicationdevelopment.Bytappingintoanalreadyestablishedcommunityaroundaparticularsocialnetworkingplatform,itbecomesunnecessarytorequireuserstoregisterwithanothersystem.

ThestructureofaSocialNetworkisessentiallytheformationofadynamicvirtualcommunitywithinherenttrustrelationshipsbetweenfriends.（Szmiginetal.,2006）identifyhow“relationshipmarketing”（identifiedasreferringtoallmarketingactivitiesdirectedtowardsestablishing,developingandmaintainingsuccessfulrelationalexchanges）canbefacilitatedthroughthecreationofon-linecommunities.Theydiscusshowon-linecommunitiescanbeusedtofacilitateinteractionandbondingbetweenconsumerandsuppliers,intermediatepartiesandspecificbrands.Similarly,（Shangetal.,2006）discusshowbrandloyaltycanbeachievedthroughvarioustypesofparticipationwithinanon-linecommunity（focusingspecificallyonthe–avirtualcommunityofAppleusersinTaiwan）.Theydiscussthemotivationforindividualstopromotecertainproductsduringon-linediscussions（activeparticipants）andforotherstoremainaslurkers（passiveparticipants）.Thestudyparticularlyfocusesontheincentivesforparticipantstocontributetoanon-linecommunity,basedontheperceptionofauseraboutthedegreeofrelevancetowardsanobjectthatisbeingdiscussed–focusingonbothcognitive（basedonutilitarianmotive–concerninganindividual’sconcernwiththecostandbenefitoftheproductorservice）andaffective（avalue-expressivemotive,referringtoanindividual’sinterestinenhancingself-esteemorself-conception,andinprojectinghis/herdesiredself-imagetotheoutsideworldthroughtheproductorservice）.

Itisalsousefultounderstand,forinstance,howsuchtrustrelationshipscouldbeusedasafoundationforresource（information,hardware,services）sharing.Cloudenvironmentsaretypicallyfocusedonprovidinglowlevelabstractionsofcomputationorstorage.Usingthisapproach,auserisabletoaccess（onashortterm/rentalbasis）capacitythatisownedbyanotherpersonorbusiness（generallyoveracomputernetwork）.Inthisway,auserisabletooutsourcetheircomputingrequirementstoanexternalprovider–limitingtheirexposuretocostassociatedwithsystemsmanagementandenergyuse.ComputationandStorageCloudsarecomplementaryandactasbuildingblocksfromwhichapplicationscanbeconstructed–usingatechniquereferredtoas“mash-ups”.StorageCloudsaregainingpopularityasawaytoextendthecapabilitiesofstorage-limiteddevicessuchasphonesandothermobiledevices.TherearealsoamultitudeofcommercialCloudproviderssuchasAmazonEC2/S3,GoogleAppEngine,MicrosoftAzureandalsomanysmallerscaleopencloudslikeNimbus（Keaheyetal.,2005）andEucalyptus（Nurmietal.,2009）.ASocialCloud（Chardetal.,2010）,ontheotherhand,isascalablecomputingmodelinwhichvirtualizedresourcescontributedbyusersaredynamicallyprovisionedamongstagroupoffriends.Compensationforuseisoptionalasusersmaywishtoshareresourceswithoutpayment,andratherutilizeareciprocalcredit（orbarter）basedmodel（Andradeetal.,2010）.InbothcasesguaranteesareofferedthroughcustomizedServiceLevelAgreements（SLAs）.Inasense,thismodelissimilartoaVolunteercomputingapproach,inthatfriendsshareresourcesamongsteachotherforlittletonogain.However,unlikeVolunteermodelsthereisinherentaccountabilitythroughexistingfriendrelationships.Thereareanumberofadvantagesgainedbyleveragingsocialnetworkingplatforms,inparticularonecangainaccesstohugeusercommunities,canexploitexistingusermanagementfunctionality,andrelyonpre-establishedtrustformedthroughexistinguserrelationships.

TheauthorthanksJasonBarabas,JonBendor,TedCarmines,JamieDruckman,JohnFreeman,MattGolder,SonaGolder,BobJackson,JennJerit,KrisKanthak,?

zgeKemahlioglu,CharlotteLee,ValerieMartinez-Ebers,AdamMeirowitz,ScottMcClurg,WillMoore,ChrisReenock,JohnRyan,JohnScholz,JakeShapiro,AnandSokhey,JeffStaton,JimStimson,CraigVolden,JonWoon,fourveryhelpfulanonymousreviewers,andaudiencesinthePoliticalEconomicsgroupattheStanfordGSB,PoliticalSciencedepartmentsatFSU,GWU,Minnesota,Pittsburgh,andStonyBrook,andtheFrankBattenSchoolofLeadershipandPublicPolicyatUVa.Anyerrorsaremyown.

Tobegintoanswerthisquestion,Idevelopanoveltheoryofaggregateopinionandbehavior.Thetheoryconsidersaheterogeneouspopulationofindividualswhomustchoosebetweendichotomousoptions.Itincorporatestheinteractionofsocialnetworkandmassmediainfluencesattheindividuallevel;itskeyassumptionisthatthemoreotherschooseanoption,themoreoneisapttodosoaswell.Inthetheory,socialnetworksprovideinformationaboutthechoicesofthosetowhomoneisdirectlyconnected,whilethemassmediaprovide（potentiallybiased）informationaboutaggregatechoice.Thetheorythusappliesto,forexample,voterturnoutandpoliticalparticipation（e.g.,Gerber,Green,andLarimer2008;LakeandHuckfeldt1998;Leighley1990;McClurg2003;Rolfe2012）,opinionformation（e.g.,Becketal.2002;DruckmanandNelson2003;HuckfeldtandSprague1995）,protestsandsocialmovements（e.g.,Kuran1991;McAdam1986）,andvotechoice（e.g.,Beck2002;HuckfeldtandSprague1995;Ryan2011;Sinclair2012;SokheyandMcClurg2012）.

Threemajorresultsfollowfromthistheory.Allholdbothwhenindividualstreatmediaidenticallyandwhentheyselectintomediainlinewiththeirpreferences.First,understandingtheaggregateeffectofthemediagenerallyrequiresconsideringsocialnetworks,becausesocialnetworkstructureconditionsmedia'simpact.Forexample,additionalweaktiesbetweendisparatesocialgroupscanreducethemedia'simpact,andthepresenceofunifiedsocialelitescaneliminatethemedia'simpactentirelyintheaggregate.Empiricalstudiesofmediaimpactthatfailtoconsidermedia'sinteractionwithsocialnetworksriskbias.

Second,socialnetworkscanamplifytheeffectofmediabias.Abiasedmediaoutletthatsystematicallyunder-orover-reportsapollofthepopulationbyaonlyafewpercentagepointscaninsomecasesswingaggregatebehavior（e.g.,turnoutorvoteshare）byover20%ineitherdirectionduetopositivefeedbackwithinthenetwork.Openadvocatesinthemediacanhaveayetlargerimpactevenwhennotcomparativelyinfluential.Unifiedsocialeliteslimittheeffectofmediabias,butcannotfullycounteranadvocate;selectionintomedia,madeevereasierwithtechnologicalimprovements,tendstoenhancetheeffectofbias.Weshouldthereforeexpectmediabiastobecomeincreasinglyimportanttoaggregatebehavior.

ANINDIVIDUAL-LEVELTHEORYOFAGGREGATEBEHAVIOR

ThoughIpresentatheoryofaggregatebehavior,itisbasedonindividual-levelassumptionsinformedbywhatweknowaboutthewaypersonalcharacteristics,socialnetworks,andmassmediaoutletsaffectindividualbehavior.Duetothis,thetheorycanexploretheeffectthatinteractionsbetweenthesethreefactorshaveonaggregatebehavior.Asimportantly,thetheoryincorporatesempiricallyrealisticheterogeneityacrosspeopleinall

threefactors.

Additionally,peopleareexposedtoindividuals,groups,andorganizationsexternaltoone'snetwork,suchasmassmediaoutlets,statepropaganda,nationalpartyleaders,NGOs,andInternetpersonalities.Theseoutletscanprovideinformation,increasingpoliticalknowledge.

Asthissmallsamplingoflargeliteraturesindicates,individuals'decisionsareinfluencedbytheinformationtheyobtainviabothlocalsocialnetworksandglobalmediaoutlets.However,comparativelylittlescholarshiphasexploredthethree-wayinteractionofpersonalcharacteristics,socialnetworks,andmedia

Inthesecondtypeofbias,whichIcalladvocacy,themediaoutletsimplystatesapreferenceforoneoftheoptions,providingnoinformationaboutaggre